This page was revised (mainly by corrections to the discussion of tensors in general relativity) on 8 June 2007 and is a totally disorganised, rambling, informal supplement to (not a replacement of) the more concise proof paper at:

‘A theorem is only as good as the assumptions underlying it. … particularly in more speculative subject, like Quantum Gravity, it’s simply a mistake to think that greater rigour can substitute for physical input. The idea that somehow, by formulating things very precisely and proving rigourous theorems, correct physics will eventually emerge simply misconstrues the role of rigour in Physics.’

1. ‘There’s the issue of the theorem itself, and whether the assumptions that went into it are physically-justified.
2. ‘There’s the issue of a certain style of doing Physics which values proving theorems over other ways of arriving at physical knowledge.
3. ‘There’s the rhetorical use to which the (alleged) theorem is put, in arguing for or against some particular approach. In particular, there’s the unreflective notion that a theorem trumps any other sort of evidence.’

‘When a photon comes down, it interacts with electrons throughout the glass, not just on the surface. The photon and electrons do some kind of dance, the net result of which is the same as if the photon hit only the surface.’

There is already a frequency of oscillation in the photon before it hits the glass, and in the glass due to the sea of electrons interacting via Yang-Mills force-causing radiation. If the frequencies clash, the photon can be reflected or absorbed. If they don’t interfere, the photon goes through the glass. Some of the resonate frequencies of the electrons in the glass are determined by the exact thickness of the glass, just like the resonate frequencies of a guitar string are determined by the exact length of the guitar string. Hence the precise thickness of the glass controls some of the vibrations of all the electrons in it, including the surface electrons on the edges of the glass. Hence, the precise thickness of the glass determines the amplitude there is for a photon of given frequency to be absorbed or reflected by the front surface of the glass. It is indirect in so much as the resonance is set up by the thickness of the glass long before the photon even arrives (other possible oscillations, corresponding to a non-integer value of the glass thickness as measured in terms of the number of wavelengths which fit into that thickness, are killed off by interference, just as a guitar string doesn’t resonate well at non-natural frequencies).

What has happened is obvious: the electrons have set up a equilibrium oscillatory state dependent upon the total thickness before the photon arrives. There is nothing to this: consider how a musical instrument works, or even just a simple tuning fork or solitary guitar string. The only resonate vibrations are those which contain an integer number of wavelengths. This is why metal bars of different lengths resonate at different frequencies when struck. Changing the length of the bar slightly, completely alters its resonance to a given wavelength! Similarly, the photon hitting the glass has a frequency itself. The electrons in the glass as a whole are all interacting (they’re spinning and orbiting with centripetal accelerations which cause radiation emission, so all are exchanging energy all the time which is the force mechanism in Yang-Mills theory for electromagnetism), so they have a range of resonances that is controlled by the number of integer wavelengths which can fit into the thickness of the glass, just as the range of resonances of a guitar string are determined by the wavelengths which fit into the string length resonately (ie, without suffering destructive interference).

Hence, the thickness of the glass pre-determines the amplitude for a photon of given frequency to be either absorbed or reflected. The electrons at the glass surface are already oscillating with a range of resonate frequencies depending on the glass thickness, before the photon even arrives. Thus, the photon is reflected (if not absorbed) only from the front face, but it’s probability of being reflected is dependent on the total thickness of the glass. Feynman also writes:

‘when the space through which a photon moves becomes too small (such as the tiny holes in the screen) … we discover that … there are interferences created by the two holes, and so on. The same situation exists with electrons: when seen on a large scale, they travel like particles, on definite paths. But on a small scale, such as inside an atom, the space is so small that … interference becomes very important.’

‘… the ‘inexorable laws of physics’ … were never really there … Newton could not predict the behaviour of three balls … In retrospect we can see that the determinism of pre-quantum physics kept itself from ideological bankruptcy only by keeping the three balls of the pawnbroker apart.’

So you could derive the Schroedinger from a corrected Maxwell ‘displacement current’ equation. This is just an example of what I mean by deriving the Schroedinger equation. Alternatively, a computer Monte Carlo simulation of electrons in orbit around a nucleus, being deflected by pair production in the Dirac sea, would provide a check on the mechanism behind the Schroedinger equation, so there is a second way to make progress

‘The picture [it is copyright, so get the book: see Fig. 7.1 on p.93 of Not Even Wrong] shows the SU(3) x SU(2) x U(1) transformation properties of the first three generations of fermions in the standard model (the other two generations behave the same way).

‘Under SU(3), the quarks are triplets and the leptons are invariant.

‘Under SU(2), the particles in the middle row are doublets (and are left-handed Weyl-spinors under Lorentz transformations), the other particles are invariant (and are right-handed Weyl-spinors under Lorentz transformations).

‘Under U(1), the transformation properties of each particle is given by its weak hypercharge Y.’

This makes it easier to understand: the QCD colour force of SU(3) controls triplets of particles (’quarks’), whereas SU(2) controls doublet’s of particles (’quarks’).

But the key thing is that the hypercharge Y is different for differently handed quarks of the same type: a right-handed downquark (electric charge -1/3) has a weak hypercharge of -2/3, while a left-handed downquark (same electric charge as the right-handed one, -1/3), has a different weak hypercharge: 1/3 instead of -2/3!

Clearly this weak hypercharge effect is what has been missing from my naive causal model (where observed long range quark electric charge is determined merely by the strength of vacuum polarization shielding of the electric charges closely confined). Energy is not merely being shared between the QCD SU(3) colour forces and the U(1) electromagnetic forces, but there is the energy present in the form of weak hypercharge forces which are determined by the SU(2) weak nuclear force group.

Let’s get the facts straight: from Woit’s discussion (unless I’m misunderstanding), the strong QCD force SU(3) only applies to triads of quarks, not to pairs of quarks (mesons).

The binding of pairs of quarks is by the weak force only (which would explain why they are so unstable, they’re only weakly bound and so more easily decay than triads which are strongly bound). The weak force also has effects on triads of quarks.

The weak hypercharge of a downquark in a meson containing 2 quarks is Y=1/3 compared to Y=-2/3 for a downquark in a baryon containing 3 quarks.

Hence the causal relationship holds true for mesons. Hypothetically, 3 right-handed electrons (each with weak hypercharge Y = -2) will become right-handed downquarks (each with hypercharge Y=-2/3) bought close together, because they then share the same vacuum polarization shield, which is 3 times stronger than that around a single electron, and so attenuates more of the electric field, reducing it from -1 per electron when widely separated to -1/3 when brought close together (forget the Pauli exclusion principle, for a moment!).

Now, in a meson, you only have 2 quarks, so you might think that from this model the downquark would have electric charge -1/2 and not -1/3, but that anomaly only exists when ignoring the weak hypercharge! For a downquark in a meson, the weak hypercharge is Y=1/3 instead of Y=-2/3 which the downquark has in a baryon (triad). The increased hypercharge (which is responsible physically to the weak force field that binds up a meson) offsets the electric charge anomaly. The handedness switch-over, in going from considering quarks in baryons to those in mesons, automatically compensates the electric charge, keeping it the same!

The details of how handedness is linked to weak hypercharge is found in the dynamics of Pauli’s exclusion principle: adjacent particles can’t have have a full set of the same quantum numbers like the same spin and charge. Instead, each particle has a unique set of quantum numbers. Bringing particles together and having them ‘live together’ in close proximity forces them to arrange themselves with suitable quantum numbers. The Pauli exclusion principle is simple in the case of atomic electrons: each electron has four quantum numbers, describing orbit configuration and intrinsic spin, and each adjacent electron has opposite spin to its neighbours. The spin alignment here can be understood very simply in terms of magnetism: it needs the least energy to have sign an alignment (hving similar spins would be an addition of magnetic moments, so that north poles would all be adjacent and south poles would all be adjacent, which requires more energy input than having adjacent magnets parallel with opposite poles nearest). In quarks, the situation regarding the Pauli exclusion principle mechanism is slightly more complex, because quarks can have similar spins if their colour charges are different (electrons don’t have colour charges, which are an emergent property of the strong fields which arise when two or three real fundamental particles are confined at close quarters).

Obviously there is a lot more detail to be filled in, but the main guiding principles are clear now: every fermion is indeed the same basic entity (whether quark or lepton), and the differences in observed properties stem to the vacuum properties such as the strength of vacuum polarization, etc. The fractional charges of quarks always arise due to the use of some electromagnetic energy to create other types of short range forces (the testable prediction of this model is the forecast that detailed calculations will show that perfect unification will arise on such energy conservation principles, without requiring the 1:1 boson to fermion ’supersymmetry’ hitherto postulated by string theorists). Hence, in this simple mechanism, the +2/3 charge of the upquark is due to a combination of strong vacuum polarization attenuation and hypercharge (the downquark we have been discussing is just the clearest case).

So regarding unification, we can get hard numbers out of this simple mechanism. We can see that the total gauge boson energy for all fields is conserved, so when one type of charge (electric charge, colour charge, or weak hypercharge) varies with collision energy or distance from nucleus, we can predict that the others will vary in such a way that the total charge gauge boson energy (which mediates the charge) remains constant. For example, we see reduced electric charge from a long range because some of that energy is attenuated by the vacuum and is being used for weak and (in the case of triads of quarks) colour charge fields. So as you get to ever higher energies (smaller distances from particle core) you will see all the forces equalizing naturally because there is less and less polarized vacuum between you and the real particle core which can attenuate the electromagnetic field. Hence, the observable strong charge couplings have less supply of energy (which comes from attenuation of the electromagnetic field), and start to decline. This causes asymptotic freedom of quarks because the decline in the strong nuclear coupling at very small distances is offset by the geometric inverse-square law over a limited range (the range of asymptotic freedom). This is what allows hadrons to have a much bigger size than the size of the tiny quarks they contain.

You can think of the strong force like the short-range forces due to normal sea-level air pressure: the air pressure of 14.7 psi or 101 kPa is big, so you can prove the short range attractive force of air pressure it by using a set of rubber ’suction cups’ strapped on your hands and knees to climb a smooth surface like a glass-fronted building (assuming the glass is strong enough!). This force has a range on the order of the mean free path of air molecules. At bigger distances, air pressure fills the gap, and the force disappears. The actual fall of course is statistical; instead of the short range attraction becoming suddenly zero at exactly one mean free path, it drops (in addition to geometric factors) exponentially by the factor exp{-ux} where u is the reciprocal of the mean free path and x is distance (in air of course there are weak attractive forces between molecules, Van der Waals forces, as well). Hence it is short ranged due to scatter of charged particles dispersing forces in all directions (unlike radiation):

‘… the Heisenberg formulae can be most naturally interpreted as statistical scatter relations, as I proposed [in the 1934 book The Logic of Scientific Discovery]. … There is, therefore, no reason whatever to accept either Heisenberg’s or Bohr’s subjectivist interpretation …’

• Sir Karl R. Popper, Objective Knowledge, Oxford University Press, 1979, p. 303.

(Note statistical scatter gives the energy form of Heisenberg’s equation, since the vacuum is full of gauge bosons carrying momentum like light, which above the IR cutoff start to exert vast pair-production loop pressure; this gives the foam vacuum.)

Dirac sea polarization (leading to charge renormalization) is only possible in volumes large enough to be likely to contain some discrete charges! The IR cutoff has a different explanation. It is required physically in quantum field theory to limit the range over which the vacuum charges of the Dirac sea are polarized, because if there were no limit, then the Dirac sea would be able to polarize sufficiently to completely eradicate the entire electric field of all electric charges. That this does not happen in nature shows that there is a physical mechanism in place which prevents polarization below the range of the IR cutoff, which is about 10^{-15} m from an electron, corresponding to something like 10^{20} volts/metre electric field strength.

Clearly, the Dirac sea is physically:

We only see ‘pair-production’ of Dirac sea charges becoming observable in creation-annihilation ‘loops’ (Feynman diagrams) when the electric field is in excess of about 10^{20} volts/metre. This very intense electric field, which occurs out to about 10^{-15} metres from a real (long-observable) electron charge core, is strong enough to overcome the binding energy of the Dirac sea: particle pairs then pop into visibility (rather like water boiling off at 100 C).

The spacing of the Dirac sea particles in the bound state below the IR cutoff is easily obtained. Take the energy-time form of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and put in the energy of an electron-positron pair and you find it can exist for ~10^{-21} second; the maximum possible range is therefore this time multiplied by c, ie ~10^{-12} metre.

The key thing to do would be to calculate the transmission of gamma rays in the vacuum. Since the maximum separation of charges is 10^{-12} m, the vacuum contains at least 10^{36} charges per cubic metre. If I can calculate that the range of gamma radiation in such a dense medium is 10^{-12} metre, I’ll have substantiated the mainstream picture. Normally you get two gamma rays when an electron and positron annhilate (the gamma rays go off in opposite directions), so the energy of each gamma ray is 0.511 MeV, and it is well known that the Compton effect (a scattering of gamma rays by electrons as if both are particles not waves) predominates for this energy. The mean free path for scatter of gamma ray energy by electrons and positrons depends essentially on the density of electrons (number of electrons and positrons per cubic metre of space). However, the data come from either the Klein-Nishita theory (an application of quantum mechanics to the Compton effect) or experiment, for situations where the binding energy of electrons to atoms or whatever is insignificant compared to the energy of the gamma ray. It is perfectly possible that the binding energy of the Dirac sea would mean that the usual radiation attenuation data are inapplicable!

Obviously the graining of the Dirac sea must be much smaller than 10^{-12} m because we have already said that it exists down to the UV cutoff (very high energy, ie, very small distances of closest approach). The amount of ‘energy’ in the Dirac sea is astronomical if you calculate the rest mass equivalent, but you can similarly produce stupid numbers for the energy of the earth’s atmosphere: the mean energy of an air molecule is around 500 m/s, and since the atmosphere is composed mainly of air molecules (with a relatively small amount of water and dust), we can get a ridiculous energy density of the air by multiplying the mass of air by 0.5*(500^2) to obtain its kinetic energy. Thus, 1 kg of air (with all the molecules going at a mean speed of 500 m/s) has an energy of 125,000 Joules. But this is not useful energy because it can’t be extracted: it is totally disorganised. The Dirac sea ‘energy’ is similarly massive but useless.

Let’s go right through the derivation of the Einstein-Hilbert field equation in a non-obfuscating way. To start with, the classical analogue of general relativity’s field equation is Poisson’s equation

div.²E = 4*Pi*Rho*G

The square of the divergence of E is just the Laplacian operator (well known in heat diffusion) acting on E and implies for radial symmetry (r = x = y = z) of a field:

div.²E

= 3*d²E/dr²

To derive Poisson’s equation in a simple way (not mathematically rigorous), observe that for non-relativistic situations

E = (1/2)mv² = MG/r

(Kinetic energy gained by a test particle falling to distance r from mass M is simply the gravitational potential energy gained at that distance by the fall!)

Now, observe for spherical geometry and uniform density (where density Rho = M/[(4/3)*Pi*r³]),

4*Pi*Rho*G = 3MG/r³ = 3[MG/r]/r²

So, since E = (1/2)mv² = MG/r,

4*Pi*Rho*G = 3[(1/2)mv²]/r² = (3/2)m(v/r)²

Here, the ratio v/r = dv/dr when translating to a differential equation, and as already shown div.²E = 3*d²E/dr² for radial symmetry, so

4*Pi*Rho*G = (3/2)m(dv/dr)² = div.²E

Hence proof of Poisson’s gravity field equation:

div.²E = 4*Pi*Rho*G.

To get this expressed as tensors you begin with a Ricci tensor R_uv for curvature (this is a shortened Riemann tensor).

R_uv = 4*Pi*G*T_uv,

where T_uv is the energy-momentum tensor which includes potential energy contributions due to pressures, but is analogous to the density term Rho in Poisson's equation. (The density of mass can be converted into energy density simply by using E=mc².)

However, this equation R_uv = 4*Pi*G*T_uv was found by Einstein to be a failure because the divergence of T_uv should be zero if energy is conserved. (A uniform energy density will have zero divergence, and T_uv is of course a density-type parameter. The energy potential of a gravitational field doesn't have zero divergence, because it diverges - falls off - with distance, but uniform density has zero divergence simply because it doesn't fall with distance!)

The only way Einstein could correct the equation (so that the divergence of T_uv is zero) was by replacing T_uv with T_uv - (1/2)(g_uv)T, where R is the trace of the Ricci tensor, and T is the trace of the energy-mass tensor.

R_uv = 4*Pi*G*[T_uv - (1/2)(g_uv)T]

which is equivalent to

R_uv - (1/2)Rg_uv = 8*Pi*G*T_uv

Which is the full general relativity field equation (ignoring the cosmological constant and dark energy, which is incompatible with any Yang-Mills quantum gravity because to use an over-simplified argument, the redshift of gravity-causing exchange radiation between receding masses over long ranges cuts off gravity, negating the need for dark energy to explain observations).

Professor Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (1853-1925) took up Riemann’s suggestion and wrote a 23-pages long article in 1892 on ‘absolute differential calculus’, developed to express differentials in such a way that they remain invariant after a change of co-ordinate system. In 1901, Ricci and Tullio Levi-Civita (1873-1941) wrote a 77-pages long paper on this, Methods of the Absolute Differential Calculus and Their Applications, which showed how to represent equations invariantly of any absolute co-ordinate system. This relied upon summations of matrices of differential vectors. Ricci expanded Riemann’s system of notation to allow the Pythagorean dimensions of space to be defined by a line element or ‘Riemann metric’ (named the ‘metric tensor’ by Einstein in 1916):

The meaning of such a tensor is revealed by subscript notation, which identify the rank of tensor and its type of variance.

When you look at the mechanism for the physical contraction, you see that general relativity is consistent with FitzGerald's physical contraction, and I've shown this mathematically at my home page. Special relativity according even to Albert Einstein is superseded by general relativity, a fact that Lubos Motl may never grasp, he like other ‘string theorists’ calls everyone interested in Feynman’s objective approach to science a ‘science-hater’. To a string theorist, a lack of connection to physical fact is ‘science-loving’ while a healthy interest in supporting empirically checked work is ‘science-hating’. (String theorists borrowed this idea from KGB propaganda as explained by George Orwell as ‘doublethink’ in the novel 1984.) Because string theory agrees with special relativity, crackpots claim falsely that general relativity is based on the same basic principle of special relativity that is a lie because special relativity is distinct from general covariance that is the heart of general relativity:

‘... the law of the constancy of the velocity of light. But ... the general theory of relativity cannot retain this law. On the contrary, we arrived at the result according to this latter theory, the velocity of light must always depend on the coordinates when a gravitational field is present.’ - Albert Einstein, Relativity, The Special and General Theory, Henry Holt and Co., 1920, p111.

‘... the principle of the constancy of the velocity of light in vacuo must be modified, since we easily recognise that the path of a ray of light … must in general be curvilinear...’ - Albert Einstein, The Principle of Relativity, Dover, 1923, p114.

‘The special theory of relativity ... does not extend to non-uniform motion ... The laws of physics must be of such a nature that they apply to systems of reference in any kind of motion. Along this road we arrive at an extension of the postulate of relativity... The general laws of nature are to be expressed by equations which hold good for all systems of co-ordinates, that is, are co-variant with respect to any substitutions whatever (generally co-variant). ...’ – Albert Einstein, ‘The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity’, Annalen der Physik, v49, 1916.

‘According to the general theory of relativity space without ether is unthinkable.’ – Albert Einstein, Sidelights on Relativity, Dover, New York, 1952, p23.

‘The Michelson-Morley experiment has thus failed to detect our motion through the aether, because the effect looked for – the delay of one of the light waves – is exactly compensated by an automatic contraction of the matter forming the apparatus…. The great stumbing-block for a philosophy which denies absolute space is the experimental detection of absolute rotation.’ – Professor A.S. Eddington (who confirmed Einstein’s general theory of relativity in 1919), Space Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1921, pp. 20, 152.

The rank is denoted simply by the number of letters of subscript notation, so that X_a is a ‘rank 1’ tensor (a vector sum of first-order differentials, like net velocity or gradient over applicable dimensions), and X_ab is a ‘rank 2’ tensor (for second order differential vectors, like acceleration). A ‘rank 0’ tensor would be a scalar (a simple quantity without direction, such as the number of particles you are dealing with). A rank 0 tensor is defined by a single number (scalar), a rank 1 tensor is a vector which is described by four numbers representing components in three orthagonal directions and time, a rank 2 tensor is described by 4 x 4 = 16 numbers, which can be tabulated in a matrix. By definition, a covariant tensor (say, X_a) and a contra-variant tensor of the same variable (say, X_-a) are distinguished by the way they transform when converting from one system of co-ordinates to another; a vector being defined as a rank 1 covariant tensor. Ricci used lower indices (subscript) to denote the matrix expansion of covariant tensors, and denoted a contra-variant tensor by superscript (for example xⁿ). But even when bold print is used, this is still ambiguous with power notation, which of course means something completely different (the tensor xⁿ = x¹ + x² + x³ +... xⁿ, whereas for powers or indices xⁿ = x₁ x₂ x₃ ...x_n). [Another step towards ‘beautiful’ gibberish then occurs whenever a contra-variant tensor is raised to a power, resulting in, say (x²)², which a logical mortal (who’s eyes do not catch the bold superscript) immediately ‘sees’ as x⁴,causing confusion.] We avoid the ‘beautiful’ notation by using negative subscript to represent contra-variant notation, thus x_-n is here the contra-variant version of the covariant tensor x_n.

The first dimension has to be defined as negative since it represents the time component, ct. We can however simplify this result by collecting similar terms together and introducing the defined dimensions in terms of number notation, since the term dx_-1 dx_-1 = d(ct)², while dx_-2 dx_-2 = dx², dx_-3 dx_-3 = dy², and so on. Therefore:

g = ds² = g_ct d(ct)² + g_x dx² + g_y dy² + g_z dz² + (a dozen trivial first order differential terms).

It is often asserted that Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was slow to apply tensors to relativity, resulting in the 10 years long delay between special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915). In fact, you could more justly blame Ricci and Levi-Civita who wrote the long-winded paper about the invention of tensors (hyped under the name ‘absolute differential calculus’ at that time) and their applications to physical laws to make them invariant of absolute co-ordinate systems. If Ricci and Levi-Civita had been competent geniuses in mathematical physics in 1901, why did they not discover general relativity, instead of merely putting into print some new mathematical tools? Radical innovations on a frontier are difficult enough to impose on the world for psychological reasons, without this being done in a radical manner. So it is rare for a single group of people to have the stamina to both invent a new method, and to apply it successfully to a radically new problem. Sir Isaac Newton used geometry, not his invention of calculus, to describe gravity in his Principia, because an innovation expressed using new methods makes it too difficult for readers to grasp. It is necessary to use familiar language and terminology to explain radical ideas rapidly and successfully.

Professor Morris Kline describes the situation after 1911, when Einstein began to search for more sophisticated mathematics to build gravitation into space-time geometry:

‘Up to this time Einstein had used only the simplest mathematical tools and had even been suspicious of the need for "higher mathematics", which he thought was often introduced to dumbfound the reader. However, to make progress on his problem he discussed it in Prague with a colleague, the mathematician Georg Pick, who called his attention to the mathematical theory of Ricci and Levi-Civita. In Zurich Einstein found a friend, Marcel Grossmann (1878-1936), who helped him learn the theory; and with this as a basis, he succeeded in formulating the general theory of relativity.’ (M. Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, 1990, vol. 3, p. 1131.)

G _ab^c = (1/2)g^cd [(dg_da/dx^b) + (dg_db/dx^a) + (dg_ab/dx^d)]

The Riemann curvature tensor is then represented by:

R^a_cbe = ( dG _bc^a /dx^e ) – ( dG _be^a /dx^c ) + (G _te^a G _bc^t ) – (G _tb^a G _ce^t ).

If there is no curvature, spacetime is flat and things don’t accelerate. Notice that if there is any (fictional) ‘cosmological constant’ (a repulsive force between all masses, opposing gravity an increasing with the distance between the masses), it will only cancel out curvature at a particular distance, where gravity is cancelled out (within this distance there is curvature due to gravitation and at greater distances there will be curvature due to the dark energy that is responsible for the cosmological constant). The only way to have a completely flat spacetime is to have totally empty space, which of course doesn’t exist, in the universe we actually know.

Karl Schwarzschild produced a simple solution to the Einstein field equation in 1916 which shows the effect of gravity on spacetime, which reduces to the line element of special relativity for the impossible hypothetical case of zero mass.

The components of the stress-energy tensor:

To get solutions, the source of gravity such as the energy of electromagnetic field, can in general relativity be treated as a 'perfect fluid' with no drag properties. Since the gravity source is conveyed by an intervening medium (the spacetime fabric, which we show to be dynamical Yang-Mills exchange radiation based), this medium when considered as an electromagnetic field, causes gravity by behaving as a perfect fluid.

Einstein’s method of obtaining the final answer involved trial and error and the equivalence principle between inertial and gravitational mass, but using Professor Roger Penrose’s approach, Einstein recognised that while this equation reduces to Newton’s law for low speeds, it is in error because it violates the principle of conservation of mass-energy, since a gravitational field has energy (i.e., ‘potential energy’) and vice-versa.

The average angle of the propagation of ray of light from the line to the centre of gravity of the sun during deflection is a right angle. When gravity deflects an object with rest mass that is moving perpendicularly to the gravitational field lines, it speeds up the object as well as deflecting its direction. But because light is already travelling at its maximum speed (light speed), it simply cannot be speeded up at all by falling. Therefore, that half of the gravitational potential energy that normally goes into speeding up an object with rest mass cannot do so in the case of light, and must go instead into causing additional directional change (downward acceleration). This is the mathematical physics reasoning for why light is deflected by precisely twice the amount suggested by Newton’s a = MG/r².

Light has momentum and exerts pressure, delivering energy. Continuous exchange of high-energy gauge bosons can only be detected as the normal forces and inertia they produce.

GENERAL RELATIVITY’S HEURISTIC PRESSURE-CONTRACTION EFFECT AND INERTIAL ACCELERATION-RESISTANCE CONTRACTION

Penrose’s Perimeter Institute lecture is interesting: ‘Are We Due for a New Revolution in Fundamental Physics?’ Penrose suggests quantum gravity will come from modifying quantum field theory to make it compatible with general relativity…I like the questions at the end where Penrose is asked about the ‘funnel’ spatial pictures of blackholes, and points out they’re misleading illustrations, since you’re really dealing with spacetime not a hole or distortion in 2 dimensions. The funnel picture really shows a 2-d surface distorted into 3 dimensions, where in reality you have a 3-dimensional surface distorted into 4 dimensional spacetime. In his essay on general relativity in the book ‘It Must Be Beautiful’, Penrose writes: ‘… when there is matter present in the vicinity of the deviating geodesics, the volume reduction is proportional to the total mass that is surrounded by the geodesics. This volume reduction is an average of the geodesic deviation in all directions … Thus, we need an appropriate entity that measures such curvature averages. Indeed, there is such an entity, referred to as the Ricci tensor …’ Feynman discussed this simply as a reduction in radial distance around a mass of (1/3)MG/c² = 1.5 mm for Earth. It’s such a shame that the physical basics of general relativity are not taught, and the whole thing gets abstruse. The curved space or 4-d spacetime description is needed to avoid Pi varying due to gravitational contraction of radial distances but not circumferences.

The velocity needed to escape from the gravitational field of a mass (ignoring atmospheric drag), beginning at distance x from the centre of mass, by Newton’s law will be v = (2GM/x)^1/2, so v² = 2GM/x. The situation is symmetrical; ignoring atmospheric drag, the speed that a ball falls back and hits you is equal to the speed with which you threw it upwards (the conservation of energy). Therefore, the energy of mass in a gravitational field at radius x from the centre of mass is equivalent to the energy of an object falling there from an infinite distance, which by symmetry is equal to the energy of a mass travelling with escape velocity v.

However, there is an important difference between this gravitational transformation and the usual Fitzgerald-Lorentz transformation, since length is only contracted in one dimension with velocity, whereas length is contracted equally in 3 dimensions (in other words, radially outward in 3 dimensions, not sideways between radial lines!), with spherically symmetric gravity. Using the binomial expansion to the first two terms of each:

where for spherical symmetry ( x = y = z = r), we have the contraction spread over three perpendicular dimensions not just one as is the case for the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction: x/x₀ + y/y₀ + z/z₀ = 3r/r₀. Hence the radial contraction of space around a mass is r/r₀ = 1 – GM/(xc²) = 1 – GM/[(3rc²]

Therefore, clocks slow down not only when moving at high velocity, but also in gravitational fields, and distance contracts in all directions toward the centre of a static mass. The variation in mass with location within a gravitational field shown in the equation above is due to variations in gravitational potential energy. The contraction of space is by (1/3) GM/c². This physically relates the Schwarzschild solution of general relativity to the special relativity line element of spacetime.

This is the 1.5-mm contraction of earth’s radius Feynman obtains, as if there is pressure in space. An equivalent pressure effect causes the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction of objects in the direction of their motion in space, similar to the wind pressure when moving in air, but without viscosity. Feynman was unable to proceed with the LeSage gravity and gave up on it in 1965.

The gravity force is the shielded inward reaction (by Newton’s 3rd law the outward force has an equal and opposite reaction):

F = (total outward force).(cross-sectional area of shield projected to radius R) / (total spherical area with radius R).

The cross-sectional area of shield projected to radius R is equal to the area of the fundamental particle (Pi multiplied by the square of the radius of the black hole of similar mass), multiplied by the ratio (R/r)² which is the inverse-square law for the geometry of the implosion. This (R/r)² ratio is very big for a falling apple! Because R is a fixed distance, as far as we are concerned here, the most significant variable the 1/r² factor, which we all know is the Newtonian inverse square law of gravity.

Illustration above: exchange force (gauge boson) radiation force cancels out (although there is compression equal to the contraction predicted by general relativity) in symmetrical situations outside the cone area since the net force sideways is the same in each direction unless there is a shielding mass intervening. Shielding is caused simply by the fact that nearby matter is not significantly receding, whereas distant matter is receding. Gravity is the net force introduced where a mass shadows you, namely in the double-cone areas shown above. In all other directions the symmetry cancels out and produces no net force. Hence gravity can be quantitatively predicted using only well established facts of quantum field theory, recession, etc. In the illustration above, only a ‘core’ of a fundamental particle (the shielding cross-section associated with the ‘Higgs-boson’ type mass-contributors in the standard model) does the shielding; the rest of the particle with its classical electron radius is generally much bigger but it doesn’t all contribute to the actual mass of the electron!

Gravity is not due to a surface compression but instead is mediated through the void between fundamental particles in atoms by exchange radiation which does not recognise macroscopic surfaces, but only interacts with the subnuclear particles associated with the elementary units of mass. The radial contraction of the earth's radius by gravity, as predicted by general relativity, is 1.5 mm. [This contraction of distance hasn't been measured directly, but the corresponding contraction or rather ‘dilation’ of time has been accurately measured by atomic clocks which have been carried to various altitudes (where gravity is weaker) in aircraft. Spacetime tells us that where distance is contracted, so is time.]

This contraction is not caused by a material pressure carried through the atoms of the earth, but is instead due to the gravity-causing exchange radiation of gravity which is carried through the void (nearly 100% of atomic volume is void). Hence the contraction is independent of the chemical nature of the earth. (Similarly, the contraction of moving bodies is caused by the same exchange radiation effect, and so is independent of the material's composition.)

The effective shielding radius of a black hole of mass M is equal to 2GM/c². A shield, like the planet earth, is composed of very small, sub-atomic particles. The very small shielding area per particle means that there will be an insignificant chance of the fundamental particles within the earth ‘overlapping’ one another by being directly behind each other.

The total shield area is therefore directly proportional to the total mass: the total shield area is equal to the area of shielding by 1 fundamental particle, multiplied by the total number of particles. (Newton showed that a spherically symmetrical arrangement of masses, say in the earth, by the inverse-square gravity law is similar to the gravity from the same mass located at the centre, because the mass within a shell depends on its area and the square of its radius.) The earth’s mass in the standard model is due to particles associated with up and down quarks: the Higgs field.

A local mass shields the force-carrying radiation exchange, because the distant masses in the universe have high speed recession, but the nearby mass is not receding significantly. By Newton’s 2nd law the outward force (according of a nearby mass which is not receding (in spacetime) from you is F = ma = m.dv/dt = mv/(x/c) = mcv/x = 0. Hence, by Newton’s 3rd law, the inward force of gauge bosons coming towards you from that mass is also zero; there is no action and so there is no reaction. As a result, the local mass shields you, so you get pushed towards it. This is why apples fall.

Shielding: since most of the mass of atoms is associated with the fields of gluons and virtual particles surrounding quarks, these are the gravity-affected parts of atoms, not the electrons or quarks themselves.

The mass of a nucleon is typically 938 MeV, compared to just 0.511 MeV for an electron and 3-5 MeV for one of the three quarks inside a neutron or a proton. Hence the actual charges of matter aren't associated with much of the mass of material. Almost all the mass comes from the massive mediators of the strong force fields between quarks in nucleons, and between nucleons in nuclei heavier than hydrogen. (In the well-tested and empirically validated Standard Model, charges like fermions don't have mass at all; the entire mass is provided by a vacuum 'Higgs field'. The exact nature of the such a field is not predicted, although some constraints on its range of properties are evident.)

The radiation is received by mass almost equally from all directions, coming from other masses in the universe; the radiation is in effect reflected back the way it came if there is symmetry that prevents the mass from being moved. The result is then a mere compression of the mass by the amount mathematically predicted by general relativity, i.e., the radial contraction is by the small distance MG/(3c²) = 1.5 mm for the contraction of the spacetime fabric by the mass in the Earth. Plotting the earth and the observable distant receding matter average distance circles (not to scale) the geometry of the mechanism becomes clear:

‘When one considers Maxwell’s equations for just the electromagnetic field, ignoring electrically charged particles, one finds that the equations have some peculiar extra symmetries besides the well-known gauge symmetry and space-time symmetries. The extra symmetry comes about because one can interchange the roles of the electric and magnetic fields in the equations without changing their form. The electric and magnetic fields in the equations are said to be dual to each other, and this symmetry is called a duality symmetry. Once electric charges are put back in to get the full theory of electrodynamics, the duality symmetry is ruined. In 1931 Dirac realised that to recover the duality in the full theory, one needs to introduce magnetically charged particles with peculiar properties. These are called magnetic monopoles and can be thought of as topologically non-trivial configurations of the electromagnetic field, in which the electromagnetic field becomes infinitely large at a point. Whereas electric charges are weakly coupled to the electromagnetic field with a coupling strength given by the fine structure constant alpha = 1/137, the duality symmetry inverts this number, demanding that the coupling of the magnetic charge to the electromagnetic field be strong with strength 1/alpha = 137. [This applies to the magnetic dipole Dirac calculated for the electron, assuming it to be a Poynting wave where E = c*B and E is shielded by vacuum polarization by a factor of 1/alpha = 137.]

‘If magnetic monopoles exist, this strong [magnetic] coupling to the electromagnetic field would make them easy to detect. All experiments that have looked for them have turned up nothing…’ - P. Woit, Not Even Wrong, Jonathan Cape, London, 2006, pp. 138-9. [Emphasis added.]

The Pauli exclusion principle normally makes the magnetic moments of all electrons undetectable on a macroscopic scale (apart from magnets made from iron, etc.): the magnetic moments usually cancel out because adjacent electrons always pair with opposite spins! If there are magnetic monopoles in the Dirac sea, there will be as many ‘north polar’ monopoles as ’south polar’ monopoles around, so we can expect not to see them because they are so strongly bound!

(1) required by the Dirac equation’s negative energy solution, and which is

(2) experimentally demonstrated by antimatter.

‘As long as the leadership of the particle theory community refuses to face up to what has happened and continues to train young theorists to work on a failed project, there is little likelihood of new ideas finding fertile ground in which to grow. Without a dramatic change in the way theorists choose what topics to address, they will continue to be as unproductive as they have been for two decades, waiting for some new experimental result finally to arrive.’

John Horgan’s 1996 excellent book The End of Science, which Woit argues is the future of physics if people don’t keep to explaining what is known (rather than speculating about unification at energy higher than can ever be seen, speculating about parallel universes, extradimensions, and other non-empirical drivel), states:

‘A few diehards dedicated to truth rather than practicality will practice physics in a nonempirical, ironic mode, plumbing the magical realm of superstrings and other esoterica and fretting about the meaning of quantum mechanics. The conferences of these ironic physicists, whose disputes cannot be experimentally resolved, will become more and more like those of that bastion of literary criticism, the Modern Language Association.’

L. Green, "Engineering versus pseudo-science", Electronics World, vol. 110, number 1820, August 2004, pp52-3:

‘… controversy is easily defused by a good experiment. When such unpleasantness is encountered, both warring factions should seek a resolution in terms of definitive experiments, rather than continued personal mudslinging. This is the difference beween scientific subjects, such as engineering, and non-scientific subjects such as art. Nobody will ever be able to devise an uglyometer to quantify the artistic merits of a painting, for example.’ (If string theorists did this, string theory would be dead, because my mechanism published in Oct 96 E.W. and Feb. 97 Science World, predicts the current cosmological results which were discovered about two years later by Perlmutter.)

This comment from Dr Love is extremely depressing; we all know today’s physics is a religion. I found out after emailed exchanges with, I believe, Dr John Gribbin, the author of numerous crackpot books like ‘The Jupiter Effect’ (claiming Los Angeles would be destroyed by an earthquake in 1982), and quantum books trying to prove Lennon’s claim ‘nothing is real’. After explaining the facts to Gribbin, he then emailed me a question something like (I have archives of emails by the way, so could check the exact wording if required): ‘you don’t seriously expect me to believe that or write about it?’

This elevation of a mere possibility to a truth, and then the use of this truth to convince oneself one has the correct theory, is a rather large extrapolation.’

A fruitful natural philosophy has a double scale or ladder ascendant and descendant; ascending from experiments to axioms and descending from axioms to the invention of new experiments. - Novum Organum.

This would allow LQG to be built as a bridge between path integrals and general relativity. I wish Smolin or Woit would pursue this.

Light ... "smells" the neighboring paths around it, and uses a small core of nearby space. (In the same way, a mirror has to have enough size to reflect normally: if the mirror is too small for the core of nearby paths, the light scatters in many directions, no matter where you put the mirror.)

- Feynman, QED, Penguin, 1990, page 54.

That's wave particle duality explained. The path integrals don't mean that the photon goes on all possible paths but as Feynman says, only a "small core of nearby space".

The double-slit interference experiment is very simple: the photon has a transverse spatal extent. If that overlaps two slits, then the photon gets diffracted by both slits, displaying interference. This is obfuscated by people claiming that the photon goes everywhere, which is not what Feynman says. It doesn't take every path: most of the energy is transferred along the classical path, and is near that.

Similarly, you find people saying that QFT says that the vacuum is full of loops of annihilation-creation. When you check what QFT says, it actually says that those loops are limited to the region between the IR and UV cutoff. If loops existed everywhere in spacetime, ie below the IR cutoff or beyond 1 fm, then the whole vacuum would be polarized enough to cancel out all real charges. If loops existed beyond the UV cutoff, ie to zero distance from a particle, then the loops would have infinite energy and momenta and the effects of those loops on the field would be infinite, again causing problems.

So the vacuum simply isn't full of loops (they only extend out to 1 fm around particles). Hence no dark energy mechanism.

Mainstream string theory or M-theory (due to Witten, 1995) theory is the 10 dimensional superstring / 11 dimensional supergravity unification which can't predict anything potentially checkable. It says that there are 10 dimensions of particle physics predicting 10^500 or so different Standard Models (because particle properties can take many values due to the many parameters of size and shape for the complex 6-dimensional Calabi-Yau manifold, which compactifies 6 of the 10 dimensions to give 4-d spacetime), each in a parallel universe! M-theory says that 10-dimensional superstring theory is a (mem)brane on 11-dimensional hyperspace of supergravity, like a 2-dimensional flat credit card containing a 3-dimensional hologram or 3 dimensional space containing ‘curvature’ due to time dimension(s). Despite all the ad hoc speculation, M-theory can’t give any checkable physics!

Unobservable extra dimensions curled up into imaginary Planck scale Calabi-Yau manifold strings, and there is postulated 1:1 boson:fermion supersymmetric partners for all Standard Model particles, to achieve ever-unobservable unification at the Planck scale. Watch how string theory dances around to impress the public without giving any real physics! It cannot ever go away because it is not a falsifiable theory. So after being ridiculed and dismissed, it always survives and come back again to sneer at alternatives which are checkable!

However, the extra dimensional speculation on general relativity, reinforced by confirmation of general relativity in various experimental tests, has led to a hardening of orthodoxy in favour of the real existence of extra dimensions. Although general relativity is 3 + 1 dimensional, the extra dimension being treated as a resultant (time), the Kaluza-Klein theory adds still another (fifth) dimension which is gives a way of combining electromagnetism and gravitation qualitatively (it makes no checkable predictions) through general relativity. The extra dimension was supposed to be rolled up into a small loop that constitutes a particle of matter. Vibrations of the loop or closed string allow it to represent different energy states, each corresponding to the different fundamental particles. There is no checkable prediction from this theory, not even the size of the loop, which is postulated to be Planck size due to Planck's fame. Planck's length - which he based on arbitrary dimensional analysis - is far bigger (G^1/2h^1/2c^-3/2 ~ 10^-35 m) than the black hole radius of an electron (2GM/c² = 1.3 x 10^-57 m) and so it is highly suspect whether the dimensional analysis numerology of the Planck size belies any real physics. The rest-mass energies of particles cannot be predicted from string theory. Later, the ad hoc suggestion was made that the Calabi-Yau six dimensional manifold be included in the string theory, leading to 10/11 dimensional superstrings/supergravity (unified by ideas like Witten's M-theory and the holographic conjecture) with a 'landscape' of 10³⁵⁰ or so values of the quantum field theory vacuum energy ground state.

The correct theory of quantum gravity to describe general relativity, applied to cosmology, must discriminate between the big bang induced cosmic expansion and the contraction of the dimensions describing matter due to gravity. There are three expanding dimensions in the big bang cosmology and three dimensions for matter that are contracted by motion and by gravitation.

Yang-Mills quantum field theory is abstract yet suggests physical dynamics: exchange of gauge bosons causes forces. This is clearly displaced by familiar Feynman diagrams depicting fundamental force exchange radiations. Via the October 1996 issue of the journal Electronics World, a mechanism was made available in an eight pages long.

Neither the equations of quantum mechanics nor Alain Aspects experiments disprove causality proper or prove Copenhagen philosophy/politics/religion.

Dr Thomas Love has proved that the entanglement philosophy is just a statement of the mathematical discontinuity between the time-dependent and time-independent Schroedinger wave equations when a measurement is taken. There’s no evidence for metaphysical wave function collapse in either the authority of Niels Bohr, the Solvay Congress of 1927, or Alain Aspect’s determination that the polarization of photons emitted in opposite directions by an electron correlate when measured metres apart.

Copenhagen quantum mechanics is speculative. So don’t build it up as a pet religion. The uncertainty principle in the Dirac sea has a perfectly causal explanation: on small distance scales, particles get randomly accelerated/decelerated/deflected by the virtual particles of the spacetime vacuum. This is like Brownian motion. On large scales, the interactions cancel out. If so, then photon polarizations correlate not because of metaphysical "wavefunction entanglement" but because the uncertainty principle doesn’t apply to measurements on light speed bosons, and only to massive fermions which are still there after you actually detect them.

A loop is a rotational transformation in the vacuum. The loop physically the exchange of energy-delivering field radiation from one mass to another, and back to the first mass again. Like the exchange radiation in Yang-Mills (Standard Model) theories, but with the added restriction of the conservation (looping between masses) of the exchange radiation? Things accelerated by a gravity field are losing gravitational potential energy and gaining kinetic energy, so the exchange radiation carries energy. If the LQG spinfoam vacuum does describes a Yang-Mills energy exchange scheme, you can get solid checkable predictions by taking account of the effect of the expansion of the universe on these conserved gravity field mediators.

If you observe two supernovae at the same time, you can in fact determine which occurred first by simply noting from their redshifts how far they are from you in time and space, and hence how long after the big bang each occurred. Hence there is an absolute time scale. Special relativity as usually taught denies absolute chronology, which doesn’t work where you can place absolute chronology on events like supernovae. A better theory will clearly separate the treatment of the expanding big bang spacetime dimensions (which measure the volume of the vacuum), from the local contractable/time dilation-able dimensions used for matter like clocks & rulers. Matter is contracted (in spacetime) by motion and gravity. But the big bang’s spacetime continues expanding. Hence the mathematical treatment of the universe needs to clearly distinguish between the 3 perpetually expanding spacetime dimensions for the volume of the universe, and the 3 contractable dimensions used to describe matter. When Einstein and Hilbert built general relativity in November 1915, they simply didn’t know that the volume of the vacuum was perpetually expanding. People thought it was static.

Above: mechanism of attraction and repulsion in electromagnetism, and the capacitor summation of displacement current energy flowing between accelerating (spinning) charges as gauge bosons (by analogy to Prevost’s 1792 model of constant temperature as a radiation equilibrium). The net exchange is like two machine gunners firing bullets at each other; they recoil apart. The gauge bosons pushing them together are redshifted, like nearly spent bullets coming from a great distance, and are not enough to prevent repulsion. In the case of attraction, the same principle applies. The two opposite charges shield one another and get pushed together. Although each charge is radiating and receiving energy on the outer sides, the inward push is from redshifted gauge bosons, and the emission is not redshifted. The result is just like two people, standing back to back, firing machine guns. The recoil pushes them together, hence the attraction force.

This inward pressure makes the radius of the earth contract by a distance of 1.5-mm. This was predicted by Einstein’s general relativity, which Einstein in 1920 at Leyden University said proved that: ‘according to the general theory of relativity, space without ether [physical fabric] is unthinkable.’ The radius contraction, discussed further down this page, is GM/(3c²). (Professor Feynman makes a confused mess of it in his relevant volume of Lectures, c42 p6, where he gives his equation 42.3 correctly for excess radius being equal to predicted radius minus measured radius, but then on the same page in the text says ‘… actual radius exceeded the predicted radius …’ Talking about ‘curvature’ when dealing with radii is not helpful and probably caused the confusion. The use of Minkowski light ray diagrams and string ‘theory’ to obfuscate the cause of gravity with talk over ‘curved space’ stems to the false model of space by the surface of a waterbed, in which heavy objects roll towards one another. This model when extended to volume type, real, space shows that space has a pressurised fabric which is shielded by mass, causing gravity.) But despite this insight, Einstein unfortunately overlooked the Hubble acceleration problem and failed to make the link with the big bang, the mechanism of gravity, which is proved below experimentally with step by step mathematics. The gravitational contraction is radial only, not affecting the circumference, so there a difference between the true radius and that calculated by Euclidean geometry. Thus curved space using non-Euclidean geometry, or you can seek the physical basis of the pressure in the surrounding universe.

0. ‘flavour rotation’ is a symmetry which relates the three families (excluding their mass properties),
1. ‘electric charge rotation’ would transform quarks into leptons and vice-versa within a given family,
2. ‘colour rotation’ would change quarks between colour charges (red, blue, green), and
3. ‘isospin rotation’ would switch the two quarks of a given family, or would switch the lepton and neutrino of a given family.

0. An electron is trapped electromagnetic (Heaviside-Poynting) energy, giving Maxwell’s equations.
1. Maxwell’s ‘displacement current’ law is equivalent to Dirac’s and Schroedinger’s time-dependent equations, and all are statements of the energy exchange processes described by Feynman’s path integrals.
2. A random distribution of an even number N of electric charges of each sign in the universe constitutes ½ N vacuum dielectric capacitors, with two different vector sum voltage forces, the first force being weak and always attractive and the second being 10^N/2 times stronger and either attractive/repulsive.
3. The vacuum polarisation shields the electron core charge by the 137 factor.
4. Energy exchange by vacuum matter particles and radiation give rise to inverse-square law forces with limited range and with infinite range, respectively.
5. Unification of forces occurs at high energy without SUSY (super-symmetry) because all vector boson energy is conserved, so unification naturally occurs where the polarised vacuum barrier breaks down.
6. There are three fundamental electric charges but only one fixed fundamental particle mass in the universe, and all observed masses are obtained by the shielding combinations through which charges couple to the mass particles in the polarised vacuum.
7. The cause for all fundamental forces, as well as the contraction term in relativity equations, is a physical resultant of the cosmological expansion so general relativity is a localised resultant effect of the surrounding expansion of the universe, and is not to be considered a model for that expansion.
8. The cause of the initial cosmological inflation and continuing expansion is the similar in mechanism to the way impacts between gas molecules cause recoil and a net expansion of gas in a balloon. At various times past the actual impact mechanisms included material impacts of fundamental particles, actual gas, real quantum radiation, and more recently just the net recoil from vector boson exchange.
9. There are six mathematically distinguishable space-time dimensions, three of which describe the non-expanding or even contracted materials and local space-time, and three describing the expanding the space-time universe. Time (non-random motion) and increasing entropy (net energy loss to space, hence the possibility of using energy in a non-equilibrium setting to do useful work) occur because cosmological expansion prohibits the establishment of an equilibrium and makes the winding down of the universe by heat death (uniform temperature) impossible.

Results and predictions

10. Maxwell’s equations, Schroedinger’s time-independent equation and atomic model
11. Schroedinger’s time-dependent law, Dirac’s equation and Feynman’s path integrals
12. The hierarchy of fundamental force strengths at all energies
13. The absolute strengths of fundamental forces
14. The strengths of all observable particle masses
15. The cosmological expansion rate and Pioneer space probe anomaly
16. Unification without SUSY
17. Use of quantum electrodynamics physics to predict the magnetic moment of an electron, without employing arbitrary renormalisation
18. Existing mathematical physics is generally correct but covers up the basis for a deep natural simplicity
19. The Wild West media is too chicken to tell you, owing to science-religious fascism

This is like radiation pressure squeezing the earth on the subatomic level (not just the macroscopic surface of the planet), and this contraction in space also causes a related gravitational reduction in time, or gravity time-dilation.

The relationship between the strength of gravity and electromagnetism comes when you analyse how the potential (voltage) adds up between capacitor plates with a vacuum dielectric, when they are aligned at random throughout space instead of being in a nice series of a circuit. You also have to understand an error in the popular interpretation of the crucial ‘displacement current’ term in Maxwell’s equation for the curl of a magnetic field (the term added to Ampere’s law ‘for mathematical consistency’): it is not the whole story.

‘We have to study the structure of the electron, and if possible, the single electron, if we want to understand physics at short distances.’ – Professor Asim O. Barut, On the Status of Hidden Variable Theories in Quantum Mechanics, Aperion, 2, 1995, pp97-8. (Quoted by Dr Thomas S. Love.)

Comparison of mass formula, M = [electron mass].[137].n(N+1)/2 = [Z-boson mass].n(N+1)/[3 x 2Pi x 137] ~ 35n(N+1) Mev against experimental data

‘Crimestop means the faculty of stopping short, as though by instinct, at the threshold of any dangerous thought. It includes the power of not grasping analogies, of failing to perceive logical errors, of misunderstanding the simplest arguments if they are inimical to Ingsoc, and of being bored or repelled by any train of thought which is capable of leading in a heretical direction. Crimestop, in short, means protective stupidity.’- G. Orwell, 1984, Chancellor Press, London, 1984, p225.

Einstein, in his 1936 paper Physics and Reality, argued that quantum mechanics is merely a statistical means of accounting for the average behaviour of a large number of particles. In a hydrogen atom, presumably, the three dimensional wave behaviour of the electron would be caused by the interaction of the electron with the particles and radiation of the quantum mechanical vacuum or Dirac sea, which would continuously be disturbing the small-scale motion of subatomic sized particles, by analogy to the way air molecules cause the jiggling or Brownian motion of very small dust particles. Hence there is chaos on small scales due to a causal physical mechanism, the quantum foam vacuum. Because of the Poincare chaos which the electromagnetic and other fields involves in 3+ body interactions create, probability and statistics rule the small scale. Collisions of particles in the vacuum by this mechanism result in the creation of other virtual particles for a brief time until further collisions annihilate the latter particles. Random collisions of vacuum particles and unstable nuclei trigger the Poisson statistics behind exponential radioactive decay, by introducing probability. All of these phenomena are real, causal events, but like the well-known Brownian motion chaos of dust particles in air, they are not deterministic.

Love has a vast literature survey and collection of vitally informative quotations from authorities, as well as new insights from his own work in quantum mechanics and field theory. He quotes, on page 8, from Asim O. Barut's paper, On the Status of Hidden Variable Theories in Quantum Mechanics, (Aperion, 2, 1995, p97): "We have to study the structure of the electron, and if possible, the single electron, if we want to understand physics at short distances."

String theory claims to study the electron by vibrating extra dimensional strings of Planck scale, but there is not a shred of evidence for this. I'd point out that the Planck scale is meaningless since the radius of a black hole electron mass (R = 2GM/c^2) is a lot smaller than the Planck size, so why choose to speculate strings are Planck size? (Planck was only fiddling around with dimensional analysis, and falsely believed he had found the smallest possible length scale, when in fact the black hole size of an electron is a lot, lot smaller!)

On page 9, Love points out that: "The problem is that quantum mechanics is mathematically inconsistent...", which compares the two versions of the Schroedinger equation on page 10. The time independent and time-dependent versions disagree and this disagreement nullifies the principle of superposition and consequently the concept of wavefunction collapse being precipitated by the act of making a measurement. The failure of superposition discredits the usual interpretation of the EPR experiment as proving quantum entanglement. To be sure, making a measurement always interferes with the system being measured (by recoil from firing light photons or other probes at the object), but that is not justification for the metaphysical belief in wavefunction collapse.

Page 40: "There is clearly a relationship between the mass of an elementary particle and the interactions in which it participates."

To combine the heuristic quantum field theory physical ideas with general relativity, matter causes the curvature of test particle geodesics via radiation (vector boson) exchange. The pressure causes GR curvature, the GR contraction of masses (squeezing by radial radiation pressure from the surrounding universe), GR gravity (LeSage shielding of the radiation pressure).

On page 40 Love finds that "the present work implies that the curvature of the space-time is caused by the rotation of something..." We know the photon has spin, so can we create a spin foam vacuum from radiation (photons)? Smolin is interested in this.

Page 41: Muon as a heavy electron. Love says that "Barut argues that the muon cannot be an excited electron since we do not observe the decay muon -> electron + gamma ray." Love argues that in the equation muon -> electron + electron neutrino + muon neutrino, the neutrino pair "is essentially a photon." It does seem likely from experimental data on the properties of the electron and muon that the muon is an electron with extra energy which allows it to associate strongly with the Higgs field.

Traditionally the Higgs field is introduced into electroweak theory partly to give the neutral Z-boson (91 GeV) a limited range at low energy, compared to the infinite range of photons. Now lets look at the mainstream heuristic picture of the electron in the Dirac sea of QFT, which is OK as far as it goes, but doesn't go far enough:

Most of the charge is screened out by polarised charges in the vacuum around the electron core:'... we find that the electromagnetic coupling grows with energy. This can be explained heuristically by remembering that the effect of the polarization of the vacuum ... amounts to the creation of a plethora of electron-positron pairs around the location of the charge. These virtual pairs behave as dipoles that, as in a dielectric medium, tend to screen this charge, decreasing its value at long distances (i.e. lower energies).' - arxiv hep-th/0510040, p 71.

‘All charges are surrounded by clouds of virtual photons, which spend part of their existence dissociated into fermion-antifermion pairs. The virtual fermions with charges opposite to the bare charge will be, on average, closer to the bare charge than those virtual particles of like sign. Thus, at large distances, we observe a reduced bare charge due to this screening effect.’ – I. Levine, D. Koltick, et al., Physical Review Letters, v.78, 1997, no.3, p.424.

Koltick found a 7% increase in the strength of Coulomb's/Gauss' force field law when hitting colliding electrons at an energy of 80 GeV or so. The coupling constant for electromagnetism is 1/137 at low energies but was found to be 1/128.5 at 80 GeV or so. This rise is due to the polarised vacuum being broken through. We have to understand Maxwell's equations in terms of the gauge boson exchange process for causing forces and the polarised vacuum shielding process for unifying forces into a unified force at very high energy. The minimal SUSY Standard Model shows electromagnetic force coupling increasing from alpha of 1/137 to alpha of 1/25 at 10^16 GeV, and the strong force falling from 1 to 1/25 at the same energy, hence unification. The reason why the unification superforce strength is not 137 times electromagnetism but only 137/25 or about 5.5 times electromagnetism, is heuristically explicable in terms of potential energy for the various force gauge bosons. If you have one force (electromagnetism) increase, more energy is carried by virtual photons at the expense of something else, say gluons. So the strong nuclear force will lose strength as the electromagnetic force gains strength. Thus simple conservation of energy will explain and allow predictions to be made on the correct variation of force strengths mediated by different gauge bosons. When you do this properly, you may learn that SUSY just isn't needed or is plain wrong, or else you will get a better grip on what is real and make some testable predictions as a result.

It seems that the traditional role of the Higgs field in giving mass to the 91 MeV Z-boson to limit its range (and to give mass to Standard Model elementary particles) may be back-to-front. If Z-bosons can be trapped by gravity into loops, like the model for the electron, they can numerically account for mass. Think of the electron as a bare core with 137e, surrounded by a shell of polarised vacuum which reduces the core charge to e. A Z-boson, while electrically neutral as a whole, is probably an oscillating electromagnetic field like a photon, being half positive and half negative electric field. So if as a loop it is aligned side-on it can be associated with a charge, providing mass. The point of this exercise is to account for empirical recently observed coincidences of masses:

Neutral Z-boson: 91 GeV

Muon mass: 91,000/ (twice Pi times 137 shielding factor) = 105.7 MeV
=> Muon is electron core associated with a Z-boson which has a polarised shield around its own core.

Electron mass: Muon mass/(1.5 x 137) = 0.511 MeV
=> Electron is like a muon, but there are two polarised shields weakening the association (one polarised shield around electron core and one around Z-boson core).

So the Z-boson, muon, and electron masses are physically related by just multiplying by 1/137 factors, depending on how many polarised shields are involved (ie, on whether the cores of the electron and Z-boson are close enough for the polarised veils of the Dirac sea to overlap, or not). The 2Pi shielding factor above is explained as follows: the spin of a fermion is half integer, so it rotates 720 degrees (like a Mobius strip with a half turn), so the average exposed side-on loop field area is half what you would have if it had spin of 1. (The twist in a Mobius strip loop reduces the average area you see side-on, it is a simple physical explanation.) The Pi factor comes from the fact that when you look at any charged loop side-on, you are subject to a field intensity Pi times less than if you loop at the field from the loop perpendicularly.

The 1.5 factor arises as follows. The mass of any individually observable elementary particle (quarks aren't separable to I'm talking of leptons, mesons and baryons) is heuristically given by:

M = {electron mass}.{137 polarised dielectric correction factor; see below for proof that this is the shielding factor}.n(1/2 + N/2).

In this simple formula, the 137 correction factor is not needed for the electron mass, so for an electron, M = {electron mass}.n(1/2 + N/2) = {electron mass}.

Here n stands for the number of charged core particles like quarks (n = 1 for leptons, n = 2 for mesons, n = 3 for baryons), and N is the number of vacuum particles (Z-bosons) associated with the charge. I've given a similar argument for the causal mechanism of Schwinger's first corrective radiation term for the magnetic moment of the electron, 1 + alpha/(2.pi) on my page. The heuristic explanation for the (1/2 + N/2) factor could be the addition of spins.

The problem is that whatever the truth is, whether string theory or LQG, some kind of connection with reality of these numbers is needed. You have three leptons and three families of quarks. The quark masses are not "real" in the sense that you can never in principle observe a free quark (the energy needed to break a couple or traid of quarks apart is enough to form new pairs of quarks).So the real problem is explaining the observable facts relating to masses: the three lepton masses (electron, muon, tauon, respectively about 0.511, 105.66 and 1784.2 MeV, or 1/137.0..., 1.5 and 25.5 respectively if you take the 1/137.0... as the electron mass), and a large amount of hadron data on meson (2 quarks each) and baryon (3 quarks each) masses.When you multiply the masses of the hadrons by alpha (1/137.0...) and divide by the electron mass, you get, at least for the long-lived hadrons (half lives above 10^-23 second) pretty quantized (near-integer) sized masses:

Mesons
Charged pions = 1.99
Neutral Pions = 1.93
Charged kaons = 7.05
Neutral kaons = 7.11
Eta = 7.84

Hyperons
Lambda = 15.9
Sigma+ = 17.0
Sigma0 = 17.0
Sigma- = 17.1
Xi(0) = 18.8
Xi(-) = 18.9
Omega- = 23.9

Of course the exceptions are nucleons, neutrons and protons, which have both have masses on this scale of around 13.4. It is a clue to why they are relatively stable compared to all the other hadrons, which all have half lives of a tiny fraction of a second (after the neutron, the next most stable hadron found in nature is the pion of course, which has a half life of 2.6 shakes (1 shake = 10^-8 second).

All these particles masses are produced by the semi empirical formula {M ~ 35n(N + 1) Mev} above to within 2% error, which is strong statistical evidence for quantization (similar if not better than Dalton's evidence for periodicity of the elements in the early nineteenth century; note that Dalton was called a crackpot by many):

N................................n = 1............n = 2...........n = 3
(number of Z-bosons..1 particle........2 quarks.......3 quarks
associated with core)...Leptons........Mesons........Baryons

1..............................Electron..........Pions
2..............................Muon
6..................................................Kaons
7...................................................Eta
8.....................................................................Nucleons
10..............................................................Lambda,Sigmas
12........................................................................Xi
15.....................................................................Omega
50.............................Tauon


As you can see from the "periodic table" based on masses above, there are a lot of blanks. Some if not all of these are doubtless filled by the shorter-lived particles.

What needs to be done next is to try to correlate the types of quarks with the apparent integer number of vacuum particles N they associate with, in each meson and baryon. I seem to recall from a course in nuclear physics that the numbers 8 and 50 are "magic numbers" in nuclear physics, and may explain the nucleons having N = 8 and the Tauon having N = 50. This is probably the "selection principle" needed to go with the formula to identify predictions of masses of relatively stable particles. (As you comment, there is no real difference between nuclear physics and particle physics.) I know Barut made some effort to empirically correlate lepton masses in his paper in PRL, v. 42 (1979), p. 1251, and Feynman was keener for people to find new ways to calculate data than to play with string theory:

‘… I do feel strongly that this [superstring theory stuff] is nonsense! … I think all this superstring stuff is crazy and is in the wrong direction. … I don’t like it that they’re not calculating anything. … why are the masses of the various particles such as quarks what they are? All these numbers … have no explanations in these string theories - absolutely none! …’ - R.P. Feynman, quoted in Davies & Brown, ‘Superstrings’ 1988, at pages 194-195 (quotation provided by Tony Smith). The semi-empirical formula is not entirely speculative, as the shielding factor 137 can be justified as you may have seen on my pages:

Heisenberg's uncertainty says pd = h/(2.Pi), where p is uncertainty in momentum, d is uncertainty in distance.This comes from his imaginary gamma ray microscope, and is usually written as a minimum (instead of with "=" as above), since there will be other sources of uncertainty in the measurement process.For light wave momentum p = mc, pd = (mc)(ct) = Et where E is uncertainty in energy (E=mc2), and t is uncertainty in time. Hence, Et = h/(2.Pi), so t = h/(2.Pi.E), so d/c = h/(2.Pi.E)d = hc/(2.Pi.E). This result is used to show that a 80 GeV energy W or Z gauge boson will have a range of 10^-17 m. So it's OK. Now, E = Fd implies d = hc/(2.Pi.E) = hc/(2.Pi.Fd). Hence F = hc/(2.Pi.d^2). This force is 137.036 times higher than Coulomb's law for unit fundamental charges. Notice that in the last sentence I've suddenly gone from thinking of d as an uncertainty in distance, to thinking of it as actual distance between two charges; but the gauge boson has to go that distance to cause the force anyway.

‘… the Heisenberg formulae can be most naturally interpreted as statistical scatter relations, as I proposed [in the 1934 German publication, ‘The Logic of Scientific Discovery’]. … There is, therefore, no reason whatever to accept either Heisenberg’s or Bohr’s subjectivist interpretation of quantum mechanics.’ – Sir Karl R. Popper, Objective Knowledge, Oxford University Press, 1979, p. 303. Note: statistical scatter gives the energy form of Heisenberg’s equation, since the vacuum is full of gauge bosons carrying momentum like light, and exerting vast pressure; this gives the foam vacuum.

Clearly what's physically happening is that the true force is 137.036 times Coulomb's law, so the real charge is 137.036e. All the detailed calculations of the Standard Model are really modelling are the vacuum processes for different types of virtual particles and gauge bosons. The whole mainstream way of thinking about the Standard Model is related to energy. What is really happening is that at higher energies you knock particles together harder, so their protective shield of polarised vacuum particles gets partially breached, and you can experience a stronger force mediated by different particles! This is reduced by the correction factor 1/137.036 because most of the charge is screened out by polarised charges in the vacuum around the electron core.

The problem is that people are used to looking to abstruse theory due to the success of QFT in some areas, and looking at the data is out of fashion. If you look at history of chemistry there were particle masses of atoms and it took school teachers like Dalton and a Russian to work out periodicity, because the bigwigs were obsessed with vortex atom maths, the ‘string theory’ of that age. Eventually, the obscure school teachers won out over the mathematicians, because the vortex atom (or string theory equivalent) did nothing, but empirical analysis did stuff. It was eventually explained theoretically!

It seems that there are two distinct mechanisms for forces to be propagated via quantum field theory. The vacuum propagates long ranges forces (electromagnetism, gravity) by radiation exchange as discussed in earlier papers kindly hosted by Walter Babin, while short-range forces (strong and weak nuclear interactions) are due to the pressure of the spin foam vacuum. The vacuum is below viewed by analogy to an ideal gas in which there is a flux of shadowed radiation and also dispersed particle-caused pressure.

The radiation has an infinite range and its intensity decreases from geometric divergence. The material pressure of the spin foam vacuum is like an ideal gas, with a small mean-free-path, and produces an attractive force with a very short range (like air pressure pushing a suction plunger against a surface, if the gap is too small to allow air to fill the gap). The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is then due to the random impacts from virtual particles in the vacuum on a small scale, which statistically average out on a large scale.

There is strong evidence showing Maxwell's light photon theory is not only drivel, but can be corrected by modern data from electromagnetism. First consider what electricity is. If you charge up a x metre long transmission line to v volts, energy enters at the speed of light. When you dicharge it, you (contrary to what you may expect) get a light speed pulse out of v/2 volts with a duration of 2x/c seconds, which of course implies a pulse 2x metres long. Nobody has ever proposed a mechanism where by energy travelling at light speed can magically stop when a transmission line charges up, and magically restart when it is allowed to discharge.

Static electrons are therefore to be viewed as trapped electromagnetic field energy. Because there is no variation in voltage in a static charged conductor, there is no electric drift current, and no resistance or net magnetic field from current, yet energy is still going at light speed.

Because we know a lot about the electron, namely its electric charge in interactions at different energy, its spin, its magnetic dipole, we can use Heaviside's model of energy current to obtain a model for an electron: it's just a Heaviside-Poynting energy trapped in a loop by the only force that will do that, gravity. I discussed this in ten pages of articles in Electronics World, August 2002 and April 2003, which are both now cited on Google Scholar (despite the abuse from string theorists). This tells us the loop size is black-hole sized. This in turn allows a mechanism for LeSage gravity to be tested (although the calculations of the mechanism can also be done in another way that doesn't depend on assumed black hole sized shield area for a fundamental particle). Maxwell had no idea that electricity is related to light in speed, or he would probably have grasped that electrons are spinning at light speed:

James Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., Article 574:- "... there is, as yet, no experimental evidence to shew whether the electric current... velocity is great or small as measured in feet per second."

James Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., Article 769:- "... we may define the ratio of the electric units to be a velocity... this velocity [of light, because light was the only thing Maxwell then knew of which had a similar speed, due to his admitted ignorance of the speed of electricity ! ] is about 300,000 kilometres per second."

So Maxwell was just guessing that he was modelling light, because he didn't guess what Heaviside knew later on (1875): that electricity is suspiciously similar to what Maxwell was trying to model as "light".

More important, a photon of over 2 electron rest masses in energy interacts with heavy nuclei (of high atomic number) by pair-production. Hence a 1.022 MeV gamma ray with spin 1 can be converted into a 0.511 MeV electron of spin 1/2 and a 0.511 MeV positron of spin 1/2. Since a classical light ray is a variation in electromagnetic field, usually drawn as being half negative electric field and half positive, the direct causal model of pair production is the literal splitting or fission of a gamma ray by the curvature of spacetime in the strong field near an atomic nucleus. The two fragments gain potential energy from the field and become trapped by gravity. The wavelength of a gamma ray of >1 MeV is very small. (It's a tragedy that pair-production was only discovered in 1932, well after the Bohring revolution, not in 1922 or before.)

Additional key evidence linking these facts directly to the Standard Model is that particles in the Standard Model don't have mass. In other words, elementary particles are like photons, they have real energy but are mass-less. The mass in the Standard Model is supplied by a mechanism, the Higgs field. This model is compatible with the Standard Model. Furthermore, predictions of particle masses are possible, as discussed above.

Page 49: Love gives strong arguments that forces arise from the exchange of real particles. Clearly from my position all attractive forces in the universe are due to recoil from shielded pressure. Two nuclear particles stick together in the nucleus because they are close enough to partly shield each other form the vacuum particles. If they are far apart, the vacuum particles completely fill the gap between them, killing the short range forces completely. Gravity and electromagnetism are different in that the vector bosons don't interact or scatter off one another, but just travel in straight lines. Hence they simply cannot disperse into LeSage "shadows" and cancel out, which is why they only fall by the inverse square law, unlike material-carried short-range nuclear forces.

P. 51: Love quotes a letter from Einstein to Schrodinger written in May 1928; 'The Heisenberg-Bohr tranquilizing philosophy - or religion? - is so delicately contrived that, for the time being, it provided a gentle pillow for the true believer from which he cannot easily be aroused. So let him lie there.'

P. 52: "Bohr and his followers tried to cut off free enquiry and say they had discovered ultimate truth - at that point their efforts stopped being science and became a revealed religion with Bohr as its prophet." Very good. Note the origin of Bohr's paranoid religion is Maxwell classical equations (saying centripetally accelerated charge in atom radiate continuously, so charge spirals into the nucleus, a fact which Bohr was unable to resolve when Rutherford wrote to him about in in 1915 or so). Being unable to answer such simple questions, Bohr simply resorted to inventing a religion to make the questions a heresy. (He also wanted his name in lights for all time.)

P. 55: excellent quotation from Hinton! But note that vortex theory of atom was never applied to electrons; it was heresy when discovery of radioactivity "disproved it".

Although the application of GR by the 'cosmological constant' fiddles to the big bang is a repeated failure of predictions for decades, as new data arises, the basic observed Hubble law of big bang expansion, nuclear reaction rates, etc., are OK. So only part of GR is found wanting!

P. 72: "In order to quantize charge, Dirac had to postulate the existence of magnetic monopoles." Love points out that magnetic monopoles have never been found in nature. Heaviside, not Maxwell, first wrote the equation div.B = 0, which is logical and only permits magnetic dipoles! Hence it is more scientific to search for UFOs than magnetic monopoles.

P. 93: interesting that Love has the source for the origin of the crackpot claim that radioactive events have no cause as Gurney and Condon 1929. I will get hold of that reference to examine in detail if a satire can be made of their argument. But I suppose Schrodinger did that in 1935, with his cat paradox?

P. 94: Particles and radiation in the vacuum create the random triggers for radioactive decays. Some kind of radiation or vacuum particles, triggers decays statistically. Love gives arguments for neutrinos and their antiparticles being involved in triggering radioactivity, but that would seem to me to only account for long half lives, where there is a reasonable chance of an interaction with a neutrino, and not for short half lives where the neutrino/antineutrino flux in space is too small, and other vacuum particles are more likely to trigger decays (vector bosons, or other particles in the quantum foam vacuum). The more stable a nuclide is, the less likely it is that an impact will trigger a decay, but due to chaotic collisions there is always some risk. I agree with Love that quantum tunnelling is not metaphysical (p. 95), but due to real vacuum interactions.

The problem is that to get a causal mechanism for radioactive decay triggering taken seriously, some statistical calculations and hopefully predictions are needed, and that before you do that you might want to understand the masses of elementary particles and how the exact mass affects the half life of the particle. Probably it is a resonance problem. I know the Standard Model does predict a lot of half lives, but I've only studied radioactivity in nuclear physics so far, not particle physics in depth.

P. 99: "It is interesting ... when a philosopher ... attacked quantum field theory, the response was immediate and vicious. But when major figures from within physics, like Dirac and Schwinger spoke, the critics were silent." Yes, and they were also polite to Einstein when he spoke, but called him an old fool behind his back.

P. 106: O'Hara quotation "Bandwagons have bad steering, poor brakes, and often no certificate of roadworthiness."

The vector boson radiation of QFT works by pushing things together. ‘Caloric’, fluid heat theory, eventually gave way to two separate mechanisms, kinetic theory and radiation. This was after Prevost in 1792 suggested constant temperature is a dynamic system, with emission in equilibrium with the reception of energy. The electromagnetic field energy exchange process is not treated with causal mechanism in current QFT, which is the cause of all the problems. All attractive forces are things shielding one another and being pushed together by the surrounding radiation pushing inward where not shadowed, while repulsion is due to the fact that in mutual exchange of energy between two objects which are not moving apart, the vector bosons are not red-shifted, whereas those pressing in on the far sides are red-shifted by the big bang, as they come from immense distances. I've a causal mechanism which works for each fundamental force, although it is still sketchy in places.

P. 119: "In the Standard Model, the electron and the neutrino interact via the weak force by interchanging a Z. But think about the masses ... Z is about 91 GeV". I think this argument of Love's is very exciting because it justifies the model of masses above: the mass-causing Higgs field is composed of Z particles in the vacuum. It's real.

P. 121: Matter is trapped electromagnetic field energy: this is also justified by the empirical electromagnetic data I've been writing about for a decade in EW.

Spin-spin interaction (Pauli exclusion force?) is clearly caused by some kind of magnetic anti alignment or pairing. When you drop two magnets into a box, they naturally pair up not end to end, but side by side, with the north poles pointing in opposite directions. This is the most stable situation. The same happens to electrons in orbits, they are magnets so they generally pair up with opposite orientation to the their neighbour. Hence Pauli's law for paired electrons.

P. 130: Vitally important, excellent quotation from Dirac about physics developing by big jumps when prejudices are overcome!

'When one looks back over the development of physics, one sees that it can be pictured as a rather steady development with many small steps and superimposed on that a number of big jumps.... These big jumps usually consist in overcoming a prejudice.'

- P. A. M. Dirac, 'Development of the Physicist's Conception of Nature', in J. Mehra (ed.), The Physicist's Conception of Nature, D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1973.

It seems that the electromagnetic force-carrying radiation is also the cause
of gravity, via particles which cause the mass of charged elementary
particles.

The vacuum particles ("higgs particle") that give rise to all mass in the
Standard Model haven't been observed officially yet, and the official
prediction of the energy of the particle is very vague, similar to the Top
Quark mass, 172 GeV. However, my argument is that the mass of the uncharged
Z-boson, 91 GeV, determines the masses of all the other particles. It
works. The charged cores of quarks, electrons, etc., couple up (strongly or
weakly) with a discrete number of massive trapped Z-bosons which exist in
the vacuum. This mechanism also explains QED, such as the magnetic moment
of the electron 1 + alpha/(2Pi) magnetons.

Literally, the electromagnetic force-causing radiation (vector bosons)
interact with charged particle cores to produce EM forces, and with the
associated "higgs bosons" (gravitationally self-trapped Z-bosons) to produce
the correct inertial masses and gravity for each particle.

The lepton and hadron masses are quantized, and I've built a model,
discussed there and on my blog, which takes this model and uses it to
predict other things. I think this is what science is all about. The
mainstream (string theory, CC cosmology) is too far out, and unable to make
any useful predictions.

As for the continuum: the way to understand it is through correcting
Maxwell's classical theory of the vacuum. Quantum field theory accounts for
electrostatic (Coulomb) forces vaguely with a radiation-exchange mechanism.
In the LeSage mechanism, the radiation causing Coulomb's law causes all
forces by pushing. I worked out the mechanism by which electric forces
operate in the April 2003 EW article; attraction occurs by mutual shielding
as with gravity, but is stronger due to the sum of the charges in the
universe. If you have a series of parallel capacitor plates with different
charges, each separated by a vacuum dielectric, you need the total (net)
voltage needs to take into account the orientation of the plates.

The vector sum is the same as a statistical random walk (drunkard's walk):
the total is equal to the average voltage between a pair of plates,
multiplied by the square root of the total number (this allows for the
angular geometry dispersion, not distance, because the universe is
spherically symmetrical around us - thank God for keeping the calculation
very simple! - and there is as much dispersion outward in the random walk as
there is inward, so the effects of inverse square law dispersions and
concentrations with distance both exactly cancel out).

Gravity is the force that comes from a straight-line sum, which is the only
other option than the random walk. In a straight line, the sum of charges
is zero along any vector across the universe, if that line contains an
average equal number of positive and negative charges. However, it is
equally likely that the straight radial line drawn at random across the
universe contains an odd number of charges, in which case the average charge
is 2 units (2 units is equal to the difference between 1 negative charge and
1 positive charge). Therefore the straight line sum has two options only,
each with 50% probability: even number of charges and hence zero net result,
and odd number of charges which gives 2 unit charges as the net sum. The
mean for the two options is simply (0 + 2) /2 = 1 unit. Hence
electromagnetism is the square root of the number of charges in the
universe, times the weak option force (gravity).

Thus, electromagnetism and gravity are different ways that charges add up.
Electric attraction is as stated, simply a mutual blocking of EM "vector
boson" radiation by charges, like LeSage gravity. Electric repulsion is an
exchange of radiation. The charges recoil apart because the underlying
physics in an expanding universe (with "red-shifted" or at least reduced
energy radiation pressing in from the outside, due to receding matter in the
surrounding universe) means their exchange of radiation results in recoil
away from one another (imagine two people firing guns at each other, for a
simple analogy; they would recoil apart).

Magnetic force is apparently, as Maxwell suggested, due to the spins of the
vacuum particles, which line up.

There is no such thing in the world as a charge with a mass.

1. Mass

No charges have masses - the masses come from the vacuum (Higgs field or whatever explanation you prefer). This is a fact according to the well tested Standard Model. The mass you measure for the electron varies with its velocity, implying radiation resistance. Special relativity is just an approximation, general relativity is entirely different and more accurate, and and allows absolute motion (i.e., in general relativity the velocity of light depends on the absolute coordinate system, because it is bent by the spacetime fabric, but special relativity ignores this). Quantum field theory shows that the vacuum particles look different to the observer depending on the state of motion of the observer. This actually provides the mechanism for the contraction and mass increase seen in the Michelson-Morley experiment (contraction) and in particle asselerators (mass increase). In order to explain the actual variation in mass, you need a vacuum spacetime fabric theory. Mass arises due to the work needed to contract a charge in the direction of motion as you accelerate it. It's physically squashed by the radiation resistance of the vacuum, and that's where the energy resides that is needed to accelerate it. It's mass increases because it gains extra momentum from this added electromagnetic energy, which makes the charge couple more strongly to the vacuum (higgs or whatever) field particles, which provide inertia and gravity, hence mass.

2. Charge

Just as charges don't directly have mass (the mass arises from vacuum interactions) is no such thing as an electric charge (as in Coulomb's law) by itself. Electric charge always exists with light speed spin and with a dipole magnetic field. All electrons have spin and a magnetic moment. In addition, Coulomb's law is just an approximation. The electron core has an electric field strength about 137 times that implies by Coulomb's law. The nature of an electron is a transverse electromagnetic (Heaviside-Poynting) energy current trapped in a loop.

It's clear from quantum electrodynamics that his basic point is correct:
the vacuum is full of charges. Normally people refuse simple models of
rotating particles in the vacuum using some arm-waving principle like the
principle of superposition, whereby the spin state of any particle is
supposed to be indeterminate until it is measured. The measurement is
supposed to collapse the wavefunction. However, Dr Thomas Love of
California State University sent me a paper showing that the principle of
superposition is just a statement of mathematical ignorance because there
are two forms of Schroedinger's equation (time dependent and time
independent), and when a measurement is taken you are basically switching
mathematical models. So superposition is just a mathematical model problem
and is not inherent in the underlying physics. So the particles in the
vacuum can have a real spin and motion even not being directly observed.

So I agree that some kind of vacuum dynamics are crucial to understanding
the physics behind Maxwell's equations. I agree that in a charged capacitor
the vacuum charges between the plates will be affected by the electric
field.

It seems to me that when a capacitor charges up, the time-variation in the
electric current flowing along the capacitor plates causes the emission of
electromagnetic energy sideways (like radio waves emitted from an aerial in
which the current applied varies with time). Therefore, the energy of
'displacement current' can be considered electromagnetic radiation similar
in principle to radio.

Maxwell's model says the changing electric field in a capacitor plate causes
displacement current in the vacuum that induces a charge on the other
plate.

In fact, the changing electric field in one plate causes a changing current
in that plate, which implies charge acceleration, which in turn causes
electromagnetic energy transmission to the other plate.

So I think Maxwell's equations cover up several intermediate physical
mechanisms. Any polarisation of the vacuum may be a result of the energy
transmission, not a cause of it.

I am very interested in your suggestion that you get a pattern of rotating
charges in a magnetic field, and in the issues of gyroscopic inertia.

I'll read your paper carefully before replying in more detail. Gyroscopes
are good toys to play with. Because they resist changes to their plane of
spin, if you let one fall while holding the axis in a pivoted way so that it
is forced to tilt in order to fall, it will appear to lose weight
temporarily. In fact what happens is gravitational potential energy is used
up doing work changing the plane of the gyroscope. Part of the
gravitational potential energy that the gyroscope is then gaining as it
falls is being used to simply change the plane of the gyroscopes spin. You
need to do work to change the plane of a spinning body, because the circular
motion of the mass implies a centripetal acceleration.

So some of the gravitational work energy (E = Fs = mgs) is used up in simply
changing the plane of the spin of the gyroscope, rather than causing the
whole thing to accelerate downward at 9.8 ms^-2. Gravity can often appear
to change because of energy conservation effects: light passing the sun is
deflected by twice the amount you'd expect from Newton's law (for slow
moving objects), because light can't speed up (unlike a slow moving object).
Because half the energy gained by a bullet passing the sun would be used
increasing the speed of the bullet and half would be used deflecting the
direction, since light cannot speed up, the entire gravitational potential
energy gained goes into deflection (hence twice the deflection implied by
Newton's law).

Consider the most important and practical problem.

1. A helicopter works by spinning plades which push down the medium around
it, creating an upward reaction force (lift).
2. From quantum field theory and general relativty, there is a vacuum field,
spacetime fabric or Dirac sea/ether.

Is it possible at the fundamental particle level to use magnetism to align
electrons or protons like tiny helicopter blades, and then use them in the
same way as helicopter blades, to push the spacetime fabric and create a
reaction? This would not be violating Newton's 3rd law, because the force
the machine experiences will result in an equal and opposite reaction on the
spacetime fabric (in the same way that a helicopter forces air downwards in
order to recoil upwards against gravity). If this is possible, if the
required magnetic fields were not too large it could probably be engineered
into a practical device once the physical mechanism was understood properly.
(However electromagnetic vacuum radiation does not diffuse in all directions
like the air downdraft from a helicopter. The downdraft from a helocopter
is doesn't knock people down because it dissipates in the the atmosphere
over a large area until it is trivial compared to the normal 14.7 psi air
pressure. If it were possible to create something using vacuum force
radiation in place of air with the helicopter principle, anyone standing
directly underneath it would - regardless of the machine's altitude - get
the full weight of the the extra downward radiation just as if the
helicopter had landed on him. Such a flying device - if it were possible
and made - would leave a trail of havoc on the ground below with the same
diameter as the machine, just like a steam roller. So it would not be
practical, really. The minimum amount of energy needed would basically be
the same, because the gravitational work energy is unchanged.)

By changing the axis of rotation of a gyroscope you can temporarily create a
reaction force against the vacuum, but you pay for it later because the
inertial resistance becomes momentum as it begins to accelerate, and you
then have to put a lot of energy in to return it to the state it was in
before. If you rotate the spin axis of a spinning gyroscope through 360
degrees, the net force you experience is zero, but while you are doing this
you experience forces in all the directions.

So it is impossible to get a motion in space from ordinary gyroscopes alone,
but it might be possible in combination with magnetism, if that would help
get a directional push against the Dirac sea of the vacuum. This might be
useful for space vehicles because the temperature is generally low enough in
space for superconductivity and the creation of intense magnetic fields very
cheaply.

Sadly, Catt thinks he can get away with anything because he is a genius for some computer design or some principle that he stumbled on 30 years ago. Similarly, Brian Josephson's brain went to off** when he won a Nobel Prize and became a mind-matter unificator, see the abstract and unscientific (non mathematical, non physical) "content" of Josephson’s paper:

Another capacitor:

The overlapped part of the two wire system above is a capacitor without the 90 degree direction change. (This one will annoy Ivor!)

I described and solved the key error in Catt's anomaly which deals with the capacitor=transmission line issue, in the March 2005 issue of Electronics World.

He is not interested in physics, because as seen above, he dismisses "ideas" as personal pet theories. He would have done the same if Galileo or whoever came along. Catt has no interest. Of course, I should not complain about Catt's false statement that I (not Catt) am confused. I should just put up with him making offensive false statements. Kepler has a theory that the planets are attracted to the sun by magnetism, with the earth's magnetism as "evidence" in addition to Kepler's own laws. So if Newton had been Kepler's assistant instead of arriving on the scene much later, he could have been accused by Kepler of confusing Kepler's package.

(If anyone doesn't like references to Galileo and Kepler, as being too conceited, then think of someone more suitable like Aristarchus who had the solar system with circular orbits. If he has an associate of Kepler's skill, he would have been able to dismiss Kepler's ellipses as being imperfect and a confusion of Aristarchus with nonsense.)

The great danger in science is where you get hundreds of people speculating without facts, and then someone claims to have experimentally confirmed one of the speculations. Hertz claimed to have proved the details of Maxwell's model by discovering radio. Oc course Faraday had predicted radio without Maxwell's theory back in 1846, when Maxwell was just a small boy. See Faraday's paper "Thoughts on Ray Vibrations", 1846.

Dr Thomas Love of California State University last week sent me a preprint, "Towards an Einsteinian Quantum Theory", where he shows that the superposition principle is a fallacy, due to two versions of the Schroedinger equation: a system described by the time-dependent Schroedinger equation isn’t in an eigenstate between interactions.

"The quantum collapse occurs when we model the wave moving according to Schroedinger (time-dependent) and then, suddenly at the time of interaction we require it to be in an eigenstate and hence to also be a solution of Schroedinger (time-independent). The collapse of the wave function is due to a discontinuity in the equations used to model the physics, it is not inherent in the physics."

Electric charge is only detected via its electric field effect. The
quantization of charge into electron size units (and sub units for quarks,
which can never be observed by themselves because the energy to separate a
quark exceeds that needed to produce a new pair of quarks from the Dirac
sea/ether) has a mechanism.

It is curious that a gamma ray with 1.022 MeV has exactly the same electric
field energy as an electron plus a proton. Dirac's quantum field theory
mechanism for pair-production, which is the really direct experimental
physics evidence (discovered by Anderson in 1932, passing gamma rays through
lead) for E=mc2, is the vacuum is full virtual electrons and a gamma ray,
with at least 1.022 MeV of energy, knocks a virtual electron out of the
vacuum. The energy it is given makes it a real electron, while the "hole"
it leaves in the ether is a positive charge, a positron.

Dirac's equation is the backbone of quantum field theory, but his ether
process is just conceptual. Pair-production only occurs when a gamma ray
enters strong field near a nucleus with high atomic number, like lead. This
of course is one reason why lead is used to shield gamma rays with energy
over 1 MeV, such as those from Co-60. (Gamma rays from Cs-137 are on
average only 0.66 MeV so are shielded by Compton scattering, which just
depends on electron abundance in the shield, not on the atomic number.
Hence for gamma rays below 1 MeV, shielding depends on getting as many
electrons between you and the source as possible, while for gamma rays above
1 MeV it is preferable to take advantage of pair production using the
nuclear properties of elements of high atomic number like lead. The pairs
of electrons and positrons are stopped very easily because they are charged,
unlike Compton scattered gamma rays.)

Dirac's sea is naive in the sense that the vacuum contains many forms of
radiation mediating different forces, and not merely virtual electrons. You
can more easily deal with pair-production by pointing out that a gamma ray
is a cycle electromagnetic radiation consisting 50% of negative electric
field and 50% of positive.

A strong field deflects radiation and 1.022 MeV is the threshold required
for the photon to break up into two opposite "charges" (opposite electric
field portions). Radiation can be deflected into a curved path by gravity.
The black hole radius is 2GM/c^2, which is smaller than the Planck size for
an electron mass. Conservation of momentum of the radiation is preserved as
the light speed spin. Superposition/wavefunction collapse is a fallacy
introduced by the mathematical discontinuity between the time-dependent and
time-independent forms of Schroedinger's equation when taking a measurement
on a system.

In the Heaviside light speed energy current, electric field is equal in
magnitude to c times the magnetic field, E=cB where each term is a vector
orthagonal to the others. We already know from Feynman-Schwinger
renormalisation that the measured charge and mass of the electron are
smaller than the effective core values, which are shielded by the
polarisation of charges around the core in Dirac's vacuum. The correct
value of the magnetic moment of the electron arises from this model. You
cannot have charge without a magnetic dipole moment, because the electron is
a Heaviside light-speed negative electric field energy current trapped in a
small loop. The electric field from this is spherically symmetric but the
magnetic field lines form a dipole, which is the observed fact. Fundamental
charged particles have a magnetic moment in addition to "electric charge".

Heuristic (trial and error) extension to existing quantum field theory using the spin foam vacuum

It seems that there are two distinct mechanisms for forces to be propagated via quantum field theory. The vacuum propagates long ranges forces (electromagnetism, gravity) by radiation exchange as discussed in earlier papers kindly hosted by Walter Babin, while short-range forces (strong and weak nuclear interactions) are due to the pressure of the spin foam vacuum. The vacuum is below viewed by analogy to an ideal gas in which there is a flux of shadowed radiation and also dispersed particle-caused pressure.

Conservation of energy for all the force field mediators would imply that the fall in the strength of the strong force would be accompanied by the rise in the strength of the electroweak force (which increases as the bare charge is exposed when the polarised vacuum shield breaks down in high energy collisions), which implies that forces unify exactly without needing supersymmetry (SUSY). For the strength of the strong nuclear force at low energies (i.e., at room temperature):

Heisenberg's uncertainty says

where p is uncertainty in momentum, d is uncertainty in distance.
This comes from his imaginary gamma ray microscope, and is usually written as a minimum (instead of with "=" as above), since there will be other sources of uncertainty in the measurement process.

For light wave momentum p = mc,
pd = (mc)(ct) = Et where E is uncertainty in energy (E=mc2), and t is uncertainty in time.

Hence, Et = h/(2.Pi)

This result is used to show that a 80 GeV energy W or Z gauge boson will have a range of 10^-17 m. So it's OK.

Now, E = Fd implies

Hence

This force is 137.036 times higher than Coulomb's law for unit fundamental charges.
Notice that in the last sentence I've suddenly gone from thinking of d as an uncertainty in distance, to thinking of it as actual distance between two charges; but the gauge boson has to go that distance to cause the force anyway.
Clearly what's physically happening is that the true force is 137.036 times Coulomb's law, so the real charge is 137.036. This is reduced by the correction factor 1/137.036 because most of the charge is screened out by polarised charges in the vacuum around the electron core:

"... we find that the electromagnetic coupling grows with energy. This can be explained heuristically by remembering that the effect of the polarization of the vacuum ... amounts to the creation of a plethora of electron-positron pairs around the location of the charge. These virtual pairs behave as dipoles that, as in a dielectric medium, tend to screen this charge, decreasing its value at long distances (i.e. lower energies)." - arxiv hep-th/0510040, p 71.

The unified Standard Model force is F = hc/(2.Pi.d^2)

All the detailed calculations of the Standard Model are really modelling are the vacuum processes for different types of virtual particles and gauge bosons. The whole mainstream way of thinking about the Standard Model is related to energy. What is really happening is that at higher energies you knock particles together harder, so their protective shield of polarised vacuum particles gets partially breached, and you can experience a stronger force mediated by different particles.

Comparison with string theory

Mainstream, M-theory of strings extrapolates the well-tested Standard Model into the force unification domain of 10^16 GeV and above using unobserved extra dimensions and unobserved super-symmetric (SUSY) partners to the normal particles we detect. The Standard Model achieved a critical confirmation with the detection of the short-ranged neutral Z and charged W particles at CERN in 1983. This confirmed the basic structure of electroweak theory, in which electroweak forces have a symmetry and long range above 250 GeV which is broken by the Higgs field mechanism at lower energies, where only the photon (out of electroweak force mediators, photon, Z, W+ and W-) continues to have infinite range.

In 1995, string theorist Edward Witten used M-theory to unify 10 dimensional superstring theory (including SUSY) with 11 dimensional supergravity as a limit. In the April 1996 issue of Physics Today Witten wrote that ‘String theory has the remarkable property of predicting gravity’. Sir Roger Penrose questioned Witten’s claim on page 896 of Road to Reality, 2004: ‘in addition to the dimensionality issue, the string theory approach is (so far, in almost all respects) restricted to being merely a perturbation theory’.

The other uses of string theory are for providing a quantum gravity framework (it allows an spin-2, unobserved graviton-type field, albeit without any predictive dynamics) and SUSY allows unification of nuclear and electromagnetic forces at an energy of 10^16 GeV (way beyond any possible high energy experiment on Earth).

'Although the prediction of the positron is certainly a brilliant success of the Dirac theory, some rather formidable questions still arise. With a completely filled 'negative energy sea' the complete theory (hole theory) can no longer be a single-particle theory.

'The treatment of the problems of electrodynamics is seriously complicated by the requisite elaborate structure of the vacuum. The filled negative energy states need produce no observable electric field. However, if an external field is present the shift in the negative energy states produces a polarisation of the vacuum and, according to the theory, this polarisation is infinite.

'In a similar way, it can be shown that an electron acquires infinite inertia (self-energy) by the coupling with the electromagnetic field which permits emission and absorption of virtual quanta. More recent developments show that these infinities, while undesirable, are removable in the sense that they do not contribute to observed results [J. Schwinger, Phys. Rev., 74, p1439, 1948, and 75, p651, 1949; S. Tomonaga, Prog. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 1, p27, 1949].

'For example, it can be shown that starting with the parameters e and m for a bare Dirac particle, the effect of the 'crowded' vacuum is to change these to new constants e' and m', which must be identified with the observed charge and mass. ... If these contributions were cut off in any reasonable manner, m' - m and e' - e would be of order alpha ~ 1/137. No rigorous justification for such a cut-off has yet been proposed.

1. Maxwell's displacement current: Voltage varying with time creates an "ethereal displacement current" (not mere electromagnetic radiation) in the vacuum.
2. True model to replace fully "displacement current": Voltage varying with time accelerates charges in the conductor, which as a result emit radiation transversely.I gave logical arguments for this kind of thing (without the full details I have recently discovered) in my letter published in the March 2005 issue of Electronics World. Notice that Catt uses a completely false picture of electricity with discontinuities (vertically abrupt rises in voltage at the front of a logic pulse) which don't exist in the real world, so he does not bother to deal with the facts and missed the mechanism. However Catt is right for arguing that the flaw in Maxwell's classical electromagnetism stems to the ignorance Maxwell had of the way current must spread along the plates at light speed.

Gravity is the force of Feynman diagram gauge bosons coming from distances/times in the past. The Standard Model, the quantum field theory of electromagnetic and nuclear interactions which has made numerous well-checked predictions, forces arise by the exchange of gauge bosons. This is well known from the pictorial ‘Feynman diagrams’ of quantum field theory. Gravitation, as illustrated by this mechanism and proved below, is just this exchange process. Gauge bosons hit the mass and bounce back, like a reflection. This causes the contraction term of general relativity, a physical contraction of radius around a mass: (1/3)MG/c² = 1.5 mm for Earth.

Mass (which by the well-checked equivalence principle of general relativity is identical for inertial and gravitational forces), arises not from the fundamental core particles of matter themselves, but by a miring effect of the spacetime fabric, the ‘Higgs bosons’. Forces are exchanges of gauge bosons: the pressure causes the cosmic expansion. The big bang observable in spacetime has speed from 0 to c with times past of 0 toward 15 billion years, giving outward force of F = ma = m.(variation in speeds from 0 to c)/(variation in times from 0 to age of universe) ~ 7 x 10⁴³ Newtons. Newton’s 3rd law gives equal inward force, carried by gauge bosons, which are shielded by matter. The gauge bosons interact with uniform mass Higgs field particles, which do the shielding and have mass. Single free fundamental rest mass particles (electrons, positrons) can only associate with other particles by electromagnetism, which is largely shielded by the veil of polarised vacuum charges surrounding the fundamental particle core. Quarks only exist in pairs or triplets, so the fundamental particles are close enough that the intervening polarised vacuum shield effect is very weak, so they have stronger interactions.

The net force is simply the proportion of the force from the projected cone (in the illustrations below), which is due to the asymmetry introduced by the effect of mass on the Higgs field (reflecting inward directed gauge bosons back). Outside the cone areas, the inward gauge boson force contributions are symmetrical from opposite directions around the observer, so those contributions all cancel out! This geometry predicts the strength of gravity very accurately…

There is strong evidence from electromagnetic theory that every fundamental particle has black-hole cross-sectional shield area for the fluid analogy of general relativity. (Discussed further on.)

Air is flowing around you like a wave as you as you walk down a corridor (an equal volume goes in the other direction at the same speed, filling in the volume you are vacating as you move). It is not possible for the surrounding fluid to move in the same direction , or a void would form BEHIND and fluid pressure would continuously increase in FRONT until motion stopped. Therefore, an equal volume of the surrounding fluid moves in the opposite direction at the same speed, pemitting uniform motion to occur! Similarly, as fundamental particles move in space, a similar amount of mass-energy in the fabric of space (spin foam vacuum field) is displaced as a wave around the particles in the opposite direction, filling in the void volume being continuously vacated behind them. For the mass of the big bang, the mass-energy of Higgs/virtual particle field particles in the moving fabric of space is similar to the mass of the universe. As the big bang mass goes outward, the fabric of space goes inward around each fundamental particle, filling in the vacated volume. (This inward moving fabric of space exerts pressure, causing the force of gravity.)

F = force = ma = PA

M = mass of Earth

P = force / area = F/A = ‘pressure’

r = distance from person to centre of mass of shield (Earth)

R = radius to big bang gravity source

H = Hubble constant = apparent speed v of galaxy clusters radially from us divided by their distance R when the light was emitted = v/R, hence v = HR = dR/dt, so dt = dR/(RH):

a_H = dv/dt = [d(RH)]/[dR/(RH)] = RH.d(RH)/dR = RH² = cH; a constant (Hubble saw light coming from fixed times past, not from stars at fixed distances).

G = universal gravitational constant (previously impossible to predict from general relativity or string theory)

e = base of natural logarithms, approx. 2.718281828…

Again, these predictions of the Hubble constant and the density of the universe from the force mechanisms assume that the universe is made of hydrogen, and so are first approximations. However they clearly show the power of this mechanism-based predictive method.

The capacitor QFT model in detail:

At every instant, you have a vector sum of electric fields possible across the universe.

The fields are physically propagated by gauge boson exchange. The gauge bosons must travel between all charges, they can't tell that an atom is "neutral" as a whole, they just travel between the charges.

Therefore even though the electric dipole created by the separation of the electron from the proton in a hydrogen atom at any instant is randomly orientated, the gauge bosons can also be considered to be doing a random walk between all the charges in the universe.

The random-walk vector sum for the charges of all the hydrogen atoms is the voltage for a single hydrogen atom (the real charges mass in the universe is something like 90% composed of hydrogen), multiplied by the square root of the number of atoms in the universe.

This allows for the angles of each atom being random. If you have a large row of charged capacitors randomly aligned in a series circuit, the average voltage resulting is obviously zero, because you have the same number of positive terminals facing one way as the other.

So there is a lot of inefficiency, but in a two or three dimensional set up, a drunk taking an equal number of steps in each direction does make progress. The taking 1 step per second, he goes an average net distance from the starting point of t^0.5 steps after t seconds.

For air molecules, the same occurs so instead of staying in the same average position after a lot of impacts, they do diffuse gradually away from their starting points.

Anyway, for the electric charges comprising the hydrogen and other atoms of the universe, each atom is a randomly aligned charged capacitor at any instant of time.

This means that the gauge boson radiation being exchanged between charges to give electromagnetic forces in Yang-Mills theory will have the drunkard’s walk effect, and you get a net electromagnetic field of the charge of a single atom multiplied by the square root of the total number in the universe.

Now, if gravity is to be unified with electromagnetism (also basically a long range, inverse square law force, unlike the short ranged nuclear forces), and if gravity due to a geometric shadowing effect (see my home page for the Yang-Mills LeSage quantum gravity mechanism with predictions), it will depend on only a straight line charge summation.

In an imaginary straight line across the universe (forget about gravity curving geodesics, since I’m talking about a non-physical line for the purpose of working out gravity mechanism, not a result from gravity), there will be on average almost as many capacitors (hydrogen atoms) with the electron-proton dipole facing one way as the other,

but not quite the same numbers!

You find that statistically, a straight line across the universe is 50% likely to have an odd number of atoms falling along it, and 50% likely to have an even number of atoms falling along it.

Clearly, if the number is even, then on average there is zero net voltage. But in all the 50% of cases where there is an ODD number of atoms falling along the line, you do have a net voltage. The situation in this case is that the average net voltage is 0.5 times the net voltage of a single atom. This causes gravity.

The exact weakness of gravity as compared to electromagnetism is now predicted.

Gravity is due to 0.5 x the voltage of 1 hydrogen atom (a "charged capacitor").

Electromagnetism is due to the random walk vector sum between all charges in the universe, which comes to the voltage of 1 hydrogen atom (a "charged capacitor"), multiplied by the square root of the number of atoms in the universe.

Thus, ratio of gravity strength to electromagnetism strength between an electron and a proton is equal to: 0.5V/(V.N^0.5) = 0.5/N^0.5.

V is the voltage of a hydrogen atom (charged capacitor in effect) and N is the number of atoms in the universe. This ratio is equal to 10^-40 or so, which is the correct figure within the experimental errors involved